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5. INDIGENOUS AGRICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE

Ambo peasants have developed a complex systems of agriculture and intensive soil management that have survived the test of time and the vagaries of environment. In spite of this, little attention has been paid to indigenous land management techniques.

This chapter discusses Oromo indigenous agricultural knowledge by focusing on the agricultural and soil conservation practices in Ambo. Attempts will be made to show how peasants' practical experience is associated with their attitudes towards the environment.

5.1 Indigenous Soil Classification

The Ambo Oromo have a wide knowledge of the local soil. Particular soil types usually characterize different places. Peasants identify, categorize, and classify soils by colour, texture, fertility and taste. Soils are often differentiated by colour. There are black cotton vertisol (Kooticha), grey (daalacha), and reddish (diimaa) soils. Shaabii soil does not have good moisture holding capacity. It contains small stones. Black soil does have a good moisture holding capacity. It is rich in organic content. Red soil is a clay-based soil. Four categories of soil are found in Birbirsa Dogoma Peasants Association: black, red, and shaabbii (sandy soil). Black, red, and Booralee (clay) soils are found in Gabisa Boji Peasants Association. Red soil is common in two-thirds of Uko Korke Peasants Association. Black soil and Borborii are also found in some parts of Uko Korke. Three categories of soil are found in Imala Dawe Ajo Peasants Association, such as black, red, and Booralee. Peasants know the difference between fertile and poor soils. They carefully observed the soil that grew grasses and crops well in the past. Fertile soils grow coqorsa and sardoo grasses. Poor soil is covered with pebbles. The poor soil does not grow grasses well. The poor soils break into very small pieces and do not have good colour. (Infs: Lelissa; Nagara Fite).

Peasants have an extensive understanding of which type of soil is best suited for the variety of arable food crops and tree crops. The same colour of soil may have different properties in different localities depending on the altitude and the availability of moisture. In Uko Korke Peasant's Association reddish soil is not favorable to chickpea, vetch and sorghum. Red soil is good for pea, barley and xaafii (Infs: Eticha; Lami; Duresso).

Black soil is believed to be favorable to a number of crops including xaafii, wheat, maize, pea, beans, chickpea, vetch, Niger seed, false banana, and so on in the four study sites. Different grains can grow on Shaabii (sandy) soil in the four study sites. Booralee soil can only grow false banana, Niger seed, and xaafii (Infs: Didha; Gadissa; Galata; Hirpha).

The survey conducted on purposely selected respondents in the four study sites has demonstrated that peasants produced the following crops in order of importance: Larger proportion of peasants in Imala Dawe Ajo, and Birbirsa Dogoma, and Gabisa Boji Peasants Associations have produced xaafii, maize, wheat and sorghum. Wheat and xaafii are the two major crops in Uko K orke Peasants Association. It has also been found that peasants in the four study sites have produced similar kinds of crops during the last two harvest seasons.

Major crops produced during the last two harvest seasons

5.2 The Causes of Soil Erosion and Indigenous Soil Management Techniques

According to the Ambo Oromo peasants, the causes of soil erosion involve highly erosive rainstorms, overgrazing, deforestation, population growth, wind, traditional farming system and the acts of God. When the land becomes full of pits, the rain erodes it. When the soils are broken up into fine particles, they will be vulnerable to erosion. The preparation of the soil for Xaafii, wheat and other small seed crops accelerates soil erosion (Infs: Bekada; Dheressa; Dhunfa; Gutama Jirane; Taressa). Xaafii, wheat, and other small seed crops, on average, demand soil depth of 30-45 cms for them to accommodate their active root systems ( Kakde 1985). Wind, particularly cyclone, erodes soil (Infs: Lelissa; Tolessa; Takele). Moreover, as population began to increase, patterns of farming changed. The demand for arable food crops, and the question of survival compelled peasants to intensively till their land including wastelands. They cleared forests for agriculture and pastures. Deforestation resulted in the degradation of soil resources once the nutrient flush from conversion of forest to pasture is over.

Almost all of the respondents (98.1%) in the study sites said that soils on their land have been eroded by the above-mentioned factors (table 13).

Peasants collect dung and carry it over long distance to their farm. In the first place, peasants pile up dung, household garbage and ashes together. When dung rot, they will be the best fertilizers. According to informants wet dung is more important than the dry dung because of the fact that the rain makes the dung to drip on the land. As a matter of fact, many peasants smear wet dung on their land so that the land will be able to grow good grasses and crops. For this matter, peasants build cattle pens on different parts of their land. According to the informants, these manures are superior to modern chemical fertilizers (Infs: Balihu; Basura; Dhuguma; Sime).

Dung is also useful for fuel. Dung and crop residues replace firewood in rural areas. The rural women often mix the dung of cattle and horse, donkey and mule. The dung of a horse is essential to set fire, since it burns well although it does not have the power to stay for a long time. The absence of firewood forces the peasants to reduce the use of dung as a soil enrichment device. Particularly peasants in Gabisa Boji rely on dung as a source of fuel owing to the shortage of firewood in their area. (Infs: Badhane; Sime).

Some peasants also use intercropping (for instance, the mixture of beans and peas, two types of xaafii, chickpea and sorghum, fenugreek and white spice within wheat fields. The majority of the informants said that the mixing of crops is not common in Ambo. Because, one of the mixed crops can dominate the other and mature faster than it. However, mixed cropping has several advantages. Different rooting systems exploit different levels in the soil profile as well as different strata above the ground, using available nutrient, water and light; one crop may provide a favorable micro-climate for another and more moisture is retained in the soil ( Chambers 1989, 86-87; Yagoub Abdella Mohamed 1994, 174). It should also be noted that agro forestry is not widely practiced in Ambo. Peasants complained that the drippings from various trees damage crops. In particular, eucalyptus trees suck nutrients of the soil and dry it. Besides, crops cannot get adequate air. However, some peasants in highlands grow Somboo (Ekebergia capensis), trees and barley on the same unit of land. Peasants leave acacia trees and Ejersa in their farm. Barley, peas, and beans can grow under acacia tree. These trees have multiple uses: they improve soil fertility by fixing nitrogen; they can be used to construct house, the organic materials such as leaves from the trees can enrich the top soil, and trees can restrict soil from both water and wind. These methods have enabled peasants to maximize food security, making optimum use of the available resources of land, labor and animal power.

Peasants are well aware that soil with a good infiltration capacity reduces the runoff and consequently the erosion hazard. They try to avoid harmful water logging by constructing drainage ditches within cultivated fields that are useful in drainage of excess water from soils (Infs: Nagara Fite; Urgessa Bayissa) and in providing a good oxygen supply and micro-organism for the roots.

As pressure on the pasture mounts, peasants reduce their herds. But this in turn reduces the dung supply to be used as manures. Persons collect dung from plots and grazing areas for fuel.

Villagization accelerated over-grazing, forest depletion, soil and surface erosion, pollution and water supply problems. Besides, peasants cut trees to build houses (including fences, stables, pit-latrines, and kitchens). The concentration of people and animals in the new villages resulted in pollution owing to the absence of garbage disposal, the uncovered stables and pit-latrines. It also led to overuse of dung for fuel, which in turn reduced the amount of manure to enrich the soil. It must also be noted that de-villagization in 1990 and 1991 further accelerated the destruction of trees.

Population growth and the scarcity of land compel peasants to ignore fallowing. Moreover, many peasants in Uko Korke peasants association discontinued the practice of what they called "Cifilliqii". In the recent past, they used to plough the land in August and suspend it for some time. They turned it over in October. Again they ploughed it in May, and sowed crops in June. Peasants consider this the best measure to improve the fertility of the land (Ins: Eticha; Marga Jara).

When the fields become full of holes, peasants use furrow to divert surface runoff to the right and left side of the holes. They put branches of thorny trees and stones in gullies so as to retain alluvial soil that is essential for the regeneration of degraded land. Also, peasants plant various kinds of trees on sloping land to reduce the impact of surface-runoff (Infs: Bayissa; Mamo; Midhakssa, Olkaba).

Contrary to Belay's observation in Southern Wallo, I have been informed that peasants in the study sites are conscious that once the crops sprout and cover the land, they can retain the sediment carried by runoff and thereby protect the land from erosion (Infs: Bakana; Deressa; Didha; Gudissa; Kafani; Lelissa; Milkessa; Ulfata). According to Belay, "[f]ailure of farmers to clearly perceive the impact of rain drops may partly explain why crop cover is not appreciated and used deliberately as a measure against accelerated soil erosion. This lack of perception of the utility of crop cover may negatively affect the possibility of controlling erosion through agronomic methods of soil conservation" (Belay 1998, 8).

Furthermore, peasants use different crops as conservation measures. Sweet potatoes, false banana, and recently fenugreek serve as soil enrichment and conservation measures in Uko Korke peasants association (Infs: Duresso; Emanssa; Dagaga Kena'a). Peasants in the remaining study sites have identified the following crops as conservation measures in order of importance: Niger seed, bean, pea, barley, and maize. They identified two types of bean, one local and a newly introduced bean. The local bean is more useful than the new one, for it is not infested by weevil while the latter is susceptible to weevil within a short period of time. Peasants identify three varieties of pea, such as white, gray and dapple. The grayish pea is the best variety because of the fact that it has broad leaves, which can enrich the soil. The dapple one is better than the white pea, which is thin. Likewise peasants identify eight varieties of barley, namely Samareeta, Waqeexannaa (white), Meettaa, Burunjii, Meso, Dumdumii, Chuchii, and Wallooyyee. Samareeta and Chuchii are believed to be the best species. Meettaa and Waqeexannaa are also good species (Infs: Barsissa; Barta; Bakana; Bekele; Dawo; Didha; Fufa; Gudissa; Gutata; Hirpha; Merga Jara; Nagara; Tolessa). The farmland will be free of weeds and fertile after legume crops (chickpea and vetch) have been harvested from it (Infs: Balihu; Sime).

On the other hand, some crops have reduced the fertility of the soil in the study sites. These crops include flax (white and red), xaafii (white and red), sorghum (Anciroo and Caxee), and wheat. The red flax is regarded as more harmful than the white one. The roots of sorghum penetrate the land and suck the nutrients of the soil and thereby make it dry. Wheat does not have broad leaves and it is not useful for the soil (Infs: Barsissa; Bakana).

Peasants also know the water requirements of different crops. Xaafii, bean and pea cannot grow well without sufficient rain. The farmland of xaafii should be fermented well. Sorghum, chickpea and vetch are drought resistant crops, and can grow well with moderate water (Infs: Didha, Taressa).

The introduction of chemical fertilizers has had adverse effects on indigenous soil conservation methods in the study sites. Successive Ethiopian governments have subsidized and promoted the application of inorganic fertilizers. Peasants lamented that they began to use chemical fertilizers because of the reduction of the number of domestic animals, the scarcity of the land, the fragmentation of the land and the propagation by the government officials about the value of inorganic fertilizers. Peasants are forced to plough their pasturelands and reduce their herds. Animals are either got rid off (by sale or transfer to other persons) or taken to another environmentally richer area. Peasants in Gabisa Boji, for instance, migrate their cattle to Tikur Enchini district during summer in order to ameliorate the problem of grazing pastures. In the past, they used to pay 15-50 cents per animal. At present, they are required to pay 10 Ethiopian Birr per animal. Therefore, most peasants avoided animal husbandry or reduced herd size (Infs: Basura; Badhane; Balihu; Dhuguma). Some peasants also state that the reduction of cattle is partly due to the fact that the bull could not serve cows on time for it could not graze well to achieve the required vigor and strength. The other problem is that peasants cannot take dung from the new villages to their fragmented lands. Thus, they have cultivated all of their plots, steep slopes and marginal lands by avoiding fallowing, crop rotation and dung.

Intensive use of chemical fertilizers has had dramatic negative effects on the land. Unknown weeds have appeared and reduced the yields. Some informants reported that chemical fertilizers multiplied chaffs rather than yields (Barsissa; Dhidha; Gutata). On top of that, the application of chemical fertilizers has changed the properties of the soil. Most of my informants state that the farmland that has been adapted to fertilizers cannot grow any crop without chemical fertilizers. It seems that heavy applications of chemical fertilizers accelerate the decomposition of soil's organic matter and make it unproductive. At the same time, the purchase of chemical fertilizers has become almost impossible for the economically weak small-scale agricultural producers. The price of fertilizers has been increasing over time. From the cost perspective, indigenous conservation measures are cheaper than chemical fertilizers. At present, peasants are in a very difficult situation. They could not totally ignore chemical fertilizers overnightnor could they rely on dung and other traditional practices because of the stated reasons. Some informants suggest that organic fertilizers should gradually replace chemical fertilizers. The government needs to suspend blanket recommendation of chemical fertilizers. Qualified experts should study the nature of chemical fertilizers (Inf: Merga Anga'a).

However, some informants underlined that peasants in Uko Korke Peasants Association have benefited much from chemical fertilizers. Peasants in highlands do not have sufficient cattle to use dung as fertilizer. They have no choice other than using chemical fertilizers (Infs: Erko; Gutema; Tirfessa).

The other important point is that the rural people have employed different techniques to control pests, worms and insects, which destroy crops. Many worms destroyed crops in the study sites due to climatic changes. Peasants controlled locusts during the reign of Haile Selassie I. Locusts fly in great swarms and destroy crops and vegetables. They cracked whips, beat dry pelts, drums, corrugated iron, and whisk the leaves of different trees to chase locusts out of their region. They smoked trees to force the locusts not to alight on the ground (Infs: Taressa; Angassa; Duresso; Gonfa; Nagara Fite). The leaves of Bakkaniisa and Gaattiraa are placed at the bottom and in the middle of stores of grains to protect them from weevil (Inf: Merga Jara). The meat of Awwaaldiigessa (Aardvark) is effective in destroying termites. Aardvarks themselves feed termites (Inf: Dhabassa). Heavy rainfall can destroy anti-crop worms such as Geergii, which is liable to reproduce itself in the absence of rain. It attacks maize. Peasants avoid Geergii by burning chaff or straw. They can also sweep Geergii from crops using the leaves of different trees. On the other hand, when the worms attack maize, some peasants boil the corn on the two cobs, and stick them into the right and the left side of the door. Peasants believe that the Dakkii of the land will destroy these worms if they spread the roasted and boiled maize on the ground (Inf: Gonfa).

Peasants complained that they have not been able to control frost and various worms, which ruin their crops, and the expansion of weeds. They know the behavior of different types of weeds. They weed their crops through Daboo (cooperative farm), and Daadoo (temporary association for cooperation) using indigenous weeding implements. Peasants pull out plants, which show signs of disease. If peasants are not able to weed their crops, they will mow their crops and use wind to separate crops from weeds (Inf: Gonfa; Balcha; Guta; Ragassa). What is interesting is that peasants never give up when they face different problems. They strive to control these problems.

5.3 Biodiversity and Indigenous Knowledge

Biodiversity is the special concern of peasant farmers in the world. "Much of the world's biodiversity has been in the hands of traditional peoples, societies of hunters and gatherers, herders, fishers, agriculturalists, for great many generations" (Berkes et al. 1995:281). Peasant farmers are very much interested in increasing the number of species and varieties of arable food crops so as to reduce agricultural risk related to factors such as crop pests and vagaries in the weather. The present study confirms that peasants in Ambo know a variety of crops and plants and develop strategies to preserve diversity in crops and plants. They enhance biodiversity on diverse geographical areas. They want to maintain a wide range of the varieties of any given cultivar. As has been shown in the foregoing discussion, there are various types of wheat, barley, xaafii, bean and pea. Peasants use these crops for different purposes including food and nutrition, health, and so forth. For instance, Waqeexannaa is one variety of barley that is important to prepare porridge. Peasants prepare bread using black barley. Peasants cannot parch xaafii and eat it. Xaafii can only be used to prepare buddeena (a fermented flat bread made from xaafii flour). Peasants can roast wheat, maize, chickpea, bean and other crops. The informants thus underlined that it is better to have five quintals of different crops than ten quintals of single crop. They state that they can get protein and vitamins from different animals and crops. They further underscore that when drought, pests and frost destroy some crops, they will use drought and pest resistant crops (Infs: Didha; Gudissa; Bakana; Galata; Barsissa). Peasants select and preserve various crops and seeds on the basis of consumption characteristics, time for maturity, induced adaptability, pest and disease resistance, high yield, reliable and stable yield, nutritional quality, colour, grain size, texture, taste, suitability for use and marketability ( Melaku 1992, 90; Melaku and Hailu 1993, 81). This implies that peasants have never stopped preserving heterogeneous populations of seed. "Unless circumstances prove impossible, small-scale farmers always retain some seed stock for security. Even when forced to leave their farms temporarily because of severe drought, farmers store small quantities of seed in clay pots or similar containers, which they seal and bury in a safe place on the farm so that they can come back a few years later to reclaim and use them" (Melaku 1992, 82). Modern biochemists and biodiversity conservationists can thus rely on the biochemical information developed by the rural poor.

In the study sites, I have noted that traditional seed conservation activities are being eroded11 as the development agents spread new improved seeds. The introduction of selected seeds has resulted in reduced soil fertility, in some cases declining yields, and increasing vulnerability of crops to pests, disease, weed competition, drought and reduction of genetic diversity. This tendency needs to be changed.

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