In this chapter, the concept "wildlife" is used in the narrower sense to refer to wild animals. The diversity of climate and topography in Oromiya has attracted a wide variety of wild animals. Black leopard, serval cat, otter, striped hyena, civet, mountain reedbuck, gerenuk, warthog, gelada baboon, colobus monkey, hunting dog, and spot-breasted plover are found in all parts of Oromiya. There are some special wild animals and species of birds in the four national parks established by the government. Oryx, soemmerings, gazelle, caral and 450 species of birds are found in Awash National Park. The mountain nyala (tragelaphae baxton) and 160 species of birds of which 14 are endemic to Oromiya are found in the Bale Mountain National Park. There are 300 bird species in the Abjjata-Shalla National Park. Zebra, Grant's gazelle and Swanne's harte best are found in Nachsar National Park, which is shared, by Oromiya and the regional state of the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples. Moreover, there are three sanctuaries in Oromiya which are the homes of various animals-Erer-fafen (elephants, Abyssinian genet and Menelik's bush-buck), Yebello (Grant's gazelle and lesser kudu) and Sanqalle (Brown Swayne's hartebeest lived in this sanctuary before their transfer to Nechsar area bordering lake Abaya in the rift valley and the Awash National Park. Furthermore, mountain nyala, grevy's zebra and bushbuck are found in Charcher and Arba Gugu mountains. Bale Mountain also consists of klipspringer, Menelik's bush buck-elephant, lion, and Abyssinian genet. Stripped hyena, and cheetah are common in upper middle Wabi Shaballe in Southern East Hararge. Caracal, reticulated giraffe, Stresemann's Bush Crow, white- tailed Swallow, Prince Ruspoli's Turaco, Lesser Kudu, Aardvark, Gravy's Zebra and Water Buck are common in southern Borana ( OPEDB 1997, 86-90).
Similarly, the Ambo Oromo have a detailed zoological classification of faunal diversity. Elephant, buffalo, lion, rhinoceros, giraffe, kudu, Qorkii (water buck), Warabboo (large antelope), and Biichee were found in Ambo. In the recent past, they migrated to other areas because of forest clearance. Hunting also contributed to the depletion of wild animals. In the past, the Oromo viewed hunting as a means of self-actualization. They participated in hunting expeditions and killed different animals. The Oromo had a strong hunting preferences for certain species, such as lion, elephant, rhinoceros, giraffe, leopard, buffalo, greater kudu, and panther. But hunting is no more a source of bush meat, hides and ivory.. In fact, many peasants hunt wild animals once a year during Easter. Previously, they used to hunt during the dry seasons in January, February and March when the animals are very weak and cannot get enough water to drink and grass to graze. Many peasants indiscriminately hunt wild animals without making any distinction between female and male, old and young. Hunters who use hunting as a means of self-realization are expected to get Mirga (the right side of the kill). Thus they kill both young and old wild animals in order to fulfill their aim. Besides, peasants do not allow some young wild animals to grow, for they will destroy their crops in the future (Inf: Gamtessa). The Oromo also killed wild animals to use their hides to make various goods. Hippopotamus (Roobii) is used to make a whip, which has special role during the Gadaa rituals and Mowata spirit possession. To sacrifice a bull to the Gadaa rituals, the Gadaa leaders are required to touch the bull with hippopotamus' whip (Infs: Erko; Fitale; Nagassa; Tirfessa). At present, antelope, baboon, boar, hyena, reedbuck, pig, small gazelle, tiger, monkey, colobus monkey, civet cat, wild cat, fox, caoo, hare, chipmunk, boortee, rabbit, tortoise, porcupine are common in the study sites (Infs: Emanssa, Fufa, Ragassa, Merga Jara, Nagara Fite).
Even though many species of animals are conceptually recognized, the Ambo Oromo use an extremely limited number of species as contributors to diet. These include antelope, small gazelle and reedbuck (Infs: Gonfa, Gurmessa, Ragassa). Obboo Nagara Fite, one of my best informants, reported that The Ambo Oromo also ate the meat of Boorte, warabboo, Kudu and Qorkii in the past. Moreover, guinea fowl and francolin are edible. In the past, cabinetmakers and those who reside in forests ate pig.
More recently, many people have begun to eat the meat of pig and boar for medical reasons. The meat of a pig is believed to be a cure for rheumatism and gonorrhea whereas the meat of a boar is used to treat scrofula. But not all pigs and boars are edible. Pigs and boars, which have divided hoofs, are chosen by the Oromo for those which have undivided hoofs are considered to be poisonous (Infs: Basura; Eticha, Likessa; Merga Jara). It would also be easy to suggest that the rise of a new religious sect in the study areas might account for the growing acceptance of boar and pig as the sources of food. Protestants eat the meat of these animals (Inf: Basura).
What cannot be denied is that the Oromo elders in Ambo advise the young generation to avoid the indiscriminate killing of wild animals. They maintain that wild animals can be used as food resource in time of crisis and famine. They are the possible sources of proteins, vitamins and medicines for various diseases.
Likewise, some ethnic groups in Africa, for instance the Shilluk of the Sudan, put firm restrictions on hunting wild animals. The people believe that the founder of the Shilluk royal house was Nyyakang who was married to a crocodile. The crocodile is considered a patron of birth and a protector of babies. The people used to throw a goat into the river as a gift to the crocodile. It is believed that all wild animals belong to the founder of the royal house--Nyyakang. An appointed individual called "Rogo" protects wild animals (El-mahi, 1994). The people can only kill those wild animals, which threaten livestock of a village by the consent of traditional leader--Bramash. Bramash is the custodian of wild animals. After killing these animals, the killer should send the skin to the "Bramash". Moreover, the Shilluk people believe that ostrich is sacred for Nyyakang had been brought up with the ostriches (El-mahi 1994, 88-89).
Some wild animals are harmful to peasants' interests. Baboon, monkey, porcupine, Canoo, boortee, reebuck, small gazelle, and antelope damage crops and grasses (Inf: Nagara Fite). Crow and other birds also eat field crops. Fox, leopard, lion, aardvark and others prey upon domestic animals. In spite of this the Ambo Oromo are not much eager to kill wild animals. As I argued elsewhere (1997a), peasants use different techniques to deter animals from their crops and domestic animals. Peasants in the study sites, for instance, build a sentry box on their farm so as to guard crops. They come together and shout at dangerous animals, such as wolf, baboon, and others to compel them to migrate to other places. I have been informed that, in the recent past unknown baboons came to Birbirsa Dogoma Peasants Association. Peasants then came together and usedshotguns, blew trumpets and chased the baboons out of their region (Infs: Barsissa; Gudeta; Gutta). When wild animals such as monkey and porcupine persistently damage their crops, peasants may use snares. They build a hovel and put crops inside the hovel to deceive wild animals.
The Ambo Oromo are well aware that when they kill wild animals such as hyena, leopard, porcupine, and crow, the relatives of these animals may retaliate against the killers and their animals and plants. They can destroy the house and fence of the killers. It is believed that these animals do not like to be cursed by the people (Infs: Galata; Gamtessa; Ulfata). The following concrete case in Gabisa Boji confirmed this. It is strange to modern scientists and difficult to account for.
One day a certain Fana Lami killed a hyena. Following this incidence, the relatives of the latter followed Obboo Fana several times in the evenings. Obboo Fana had two strong dogs. One evening he was eating his dinner holding his gun. Meanwhile the hyena passed the two dogs and entered the house and stood in front of the man. The man could not move and take his gun to kill the hyena. After a while the hyena left. At that moment the dogs, for the first time, started to bark at the hyena. The man got angry and killed one of the dogs for failing to bark at the hyena when the latter entered his house. Having considered the situation, Obboo Fana asked one knowledgeable person to help him solve the problem. The latter warned Obboo Fana that the hyena would eat him in the near future unless he pays a blood price for the relatives of the deceased hyena according to the traditional reconciliation procedures. Obboo Fana was advised to buy a donkey and tie it to a tree in the forest. Obboo Fana did what the knowledgeable person suggested. However, the hyena did not eat the donkey after three days. Obboo Fana again returned to the house of the knowledgeable person and reported to him about the situation. The person underlined that if Obboo Fana failed to follow the necessary procedures, the hyena would not eat the donkey. In the first place, two Guulaas (people who have gone through all the rituals of the Gadaa and who have their ruling period behind them) are required to offer a donkey to the hyena. Salt and chilli should be put on leaves and be placed around the donkey. Four seats should be prepared. After this arrangement, the two Guulaas will say the following: According to the law of Guulaa, Waaqa and the Earth, the person paid blood price for killing your relatives; please eat it with chilli and salt. Then after, the hyenas gathered in daylight and ate the donkey. From that day onwards, Obboo Fana was not followed and harassed by the hyenas (Inf: Dhuguma).
Although one might argue that hyenas do not require blood price, the majority of my informants reported that they need blood price.
The Oromo people show kindness to some wild animals on cultural, economical and religious grounds. All of my informants report that the Oromo people regard Weennii (colobus monkey) with white spot on its head, as religious, pure and peaceful animal. A colobus monkey does not attack field crops and domestic animals. It eats the seeds of trees. It goes to the river at noon and washes its hand and rinses its mouth. Some said that it is a Christian animal, for it is fasting. When some individuals try to kill it, it begs them by joining its forelegs. It growls early in the morning. When it chatters twice in the morning, the Ambo Oromo will say the following: "Weennii lama Korrise yeroon waa yaadan geessee" --"The chattering of colobus monkey alerts the people particularly the young people to think something." One can say that a Colobus monkey serves the Oromo and other people as an alarm clock to wake them in the morning. Thus, the information I gathered confirms that Colobus monkey is the most respected wild animal in Ambo. The people don't want to kill it. There are some exceptions. Some individuals kill it so as to use its skin to make a hat and cushion for their pommel saddle. As the Oromo saying goes, "Weenniin, bifa shiitiif duuti" (A Colobus monkey dies because of its colour).
Wild animals, which have a unique mark on their bodies and are different from their species are considered religious and fortunate. Chat (a green lash leaf which is chewed as a stimulant) will sprout inside the ear of some big animals. These animals are called Caattoo and respected by the people including hunters. It is believed that killing them leads to the death of the killer. Those who kill them cannot be healthy (Infs: Dhabassa, Nagara Fite). Before the disappearance of Koodoo, the Ambo Oromo considered it the sheep of Waaqa, and protected it from any threat. Koodoo used to live on anthill. Killing Koodoo is believed to make one blind. Likewise, grey antelopes and dappled leopard are considered Ayyaantuu and are well protected by the Ambo Oromo (Infs: Dagaga Cuche; Gamtessa). Caattoo is found in Gindabarat, Bako, Jibat and in other places.
When leopards and other wild animals migrate to the place of the Qaalluu leaders, they will be considered religious and command respect. Wild animals living around Churchyards in Ambo are not to be killed. It is believed that these animals came to the house of God (Infs: Erko; Tirfessa; Fitale).
The Ambo Oromo also revere some birds. Cuquliisa (blue starling) is conceived as a pure bird. It is believed that when it constructs its nest around one's house, one will beget a child (Inf: Lelissa). It moves and plays around cattle. It does not cause any harm to the people. Dinbichoo is conceived as the bird of Maaram. Although it eats xaafii, it does not destroy other crops. Pigeon is viewed as the messenger of peace. The Ambo Oromo also regard the hawk a religious bird. When the people pass by a hawk, they perform ritual. It is believed that when a hawk shouts and breaks its feathers, an Emperor will die (Infs: Angassa; Duresso; Fufa). At the same time the Oromo don't try to kill Uummoo (EMU) that always move in twos: as a couple. A male EMU has a red spot on its neck whereas the female EMU has a black spot on its neck. According to the informants, if one is able to pass between two EMUs, one can be rich and beget a child and will live long. Obboo Urgessa Bayissa reported that after passing between two emus, he was able to beget seven children. It is, however, difficult to pass between two Emus for they always close up and run away when a person approaches (Infs: Badhane; Dhuguma). When a snake bites one of them, the other one will cut medicinal plant and treat its partner (Inf: Ragassa). Moreover, a black crow with a white spot on its thigh is characterized as the crow of Maaram. Women used to prepare porridge for this kind of crow in spring, for it is believed to pacify crows not to damage crops. No body is allowed to kill these crows (Infs: Basura, Balcha).
It is interesting to note that some clans in Ambo have their own totem animals. Totemism is the belief that animals have a close connection with a family group. Lion is the totem of the people of Soboka Gadhafa lineage in Ambo. These people belong to the family of lions, and are called Aboosaree Qaasoo. They are now found in Qaasoo Jibat forests. They believe that a lion has a spirit and needs to be respected. There has been a traditional ritual in respect of a lion. The people prey to the spirit of a lion. They say "Aboosaree yaa ilmaan saree sanyii leencaa ilmaan yaaftewoo"--"Aboosaree the children of dog, the race of a lion releases its children." The people sacrifice animals as an offering to the deity of a lion. A lion stays with the people during this ceremony. It plays with its tail, and obeys the order of Aboosaree. The next morning, the lions go to their forests. They are not supposed to be killed by anybody. A lion is expected to help Aboosaree in times of need or desperation. It considers Aboosaree as its relatives. It is not supposed to attack both the people and their animals. In fact, when the people fail to offer gifts to a lion, it may attack the people and animals. This is still a living tradition in Jibat forests (Infs: Fufa; Gamtessa; Gutama Mitafa; Ragassa). Some clans in Toke Leenca and Homacho localities consider python as their totem. They sacrifice animals for this python (Inf: Gutema Mitafa).
There are similar practices in many African countries, for instance, in the Sudan, in Kenya, in Tanzania; in Zimbabwe and others (Tobayiwa and Jackson 1985; Burnett and Kang'ethe 1994; El-mahi 1994). Evans-Pritchard states that the Nuer of Sudan and their totem animals respect each other.
A Nuer shows respect for his totem by refraining from hurting it in any way and above all from eating it, if it is edible; by paying it some courtesy of recognition if he meets it; by formal expression of regret, such as throwing grass on its body, should he find it dead; and by an expression of disapproval, for no more than that seems to be required of him, should someone injure it in his presence. The respect is reciprocal. As we have seen, lions should refrain from killing the cattle of those who respect them, crocodiles should not injure those who respect them, and ostriches should not eat the millets of those who respect them (Evans-Pritchard 1956, 79).
The system of totemism may offer opportunities for the protection of wild animals. It may promote the diversity of wild animals and ecological stability.
The foregoing discussion shows that Ambo Oromo are able to classify various species. It has been stated that the Ambo Oromo identify a variety of plants. One may ask why the Oromo and other indigenous peoples in the world have developed a detailed zoological classification and utilization of wild animals.
There are three different approaches that address this question in the literature. The utilitarian-adaptationists regard the indigenous people as exclusively utilitarian. They underline that the satisfaction of human needs is the primary mover in the recognition and classification of wild animals. They see the environment as a setting in which people must satisfy their physical needs, that is, a setting to which they must adapt. Folk biological classification would then be regarded as a way by which people systematically organize, store, and retrieve environmental information, which will enable them to accomplish their adaptation. Thus, a utilitarian/adaptations perspective would seek to identify the practical consequences of folk conceptual and terminological distinctions, and ultimately explain folk taxonomies as structures which are motivated by a concern with these consequences" (Hays 1982, quoted in Berlin and Berlin 1983, 319).
Levi-Strauss (1966), however, argues that need cannot explain the complexities of native systems of biological knowledge. For him, primitive peoples' "extreme familiarity with their biological environment ...cannot relate to just practical needs" (Levi-Strauss 1966, 6-8), because the detail found in such systems of classification" can scarcely be of much practical effect [because] its main purpose is not a practical one. It meets intellectual requirements rather than...satisfying needs [because] classifying ... has a value of its own' (Levi-Strauss 1966, 9).
Berlin and Berlin (1983) challenged both the extreme intellectualist and utilitarian adaptationist positions. The pragmatic man-animal relationships cannot be the primary reason to identify different species. Berlin and Berlin (1983) convincingly argue that functional assessment presupposes the existence of various animals. Before proceeding to talk about the values of animals, we need to see them. Although Levi-Strauss' view that primitive peoples have "intellectual need" has a grain of truth, it cannot explain the whole phenomena. By considering the work of comparative studies in "ethnosystematics" over the past several years, Berlin and Berlin confirmed the correspondence of "folk" and scientific systems of biological classification. Hence, the biological systematics or western trained biologists cannot invent a conceptual order for the world animals. Instead the classification of various species results from simply recognizing and codifying the natural order inherent in the biological world. In this sense, both systems are strongly perceptually based, although the westerner has developed an evolutionary theory to explain explicitly the similarities and differences so readily obvious to the careful observer. One need not, then, invoke utilitarian motivations for their system any more than one must enlist intellectualists' drives for conceptual order. Rather, it would seem that the physical and behavioral characteristics of localized species of a given geographic region are sufficiently transparent that not to recognize them is rendered difficult (Berlin and Berlin 1983, 324).
I am in agreement with this view. The preceding discussion about Oromo environmental knowledge shows that beyond the satisfaction of their immediate interests, the Oromo desire to know the secret of the natural environment. They have been classifying and reclassifying a variety of old and new plants and wild animals.
