Agriculture is the dominant sector in the economy, which for the past ten years has accounted on average for 34 percent of real GDP, with small-scale agriculture having a 25-percent share of the GDP (Ministry of Economic Planning and Development 1995). Within the small-scale agriculture maize is a major component, contributing about 60 percent of the small-scale output. On the whole, agriculture contributes about 90 percent of export earnings and 85 percent of employment. Given the central importance of agriculture in the government's economic development strategy, any deterioration in land resources poses serious consequences for Malawi's future sustainable economic development and growth. Sustainable development does not necessarily mean complete conservation of the resource base. Indeed, a certain level of environmental degradation is an inevitable by-product of economic activity. The critical issue, however, is to ensure that the level of resource use remains consistent with society's development objectives. To achieve this in Malawi, there is need for an express understanding of the interactive forces that influence smallholder agricultural productivity and bring about soil erosion and deforestation. Thus some understanding of land use, management and land degradation is necessary to facilitate sustainable development. This necessitates an analysis not only of the spatial patterns of existing practices, their productivity and of the distribution of land degradation but also of the economic and social factors that affect the attitudes, perceptions and decision-making processes of the smallholders themselves.
This study has the broad aim of exploring the degree of land use, management and land degradation.
The specific objectives of the study are:
(i) to survey and assess spatial and temporal change of land use pattern and the spatial extent of degradation;
(ii) to isolate socio-technical, political and environmental factors that influence land use decisions on smallholder land use activities;
(iii) to determine the level of productivity of smallholder land use activities; (Productivity in this study has been mainly measured in relation to landholding size and labour input.)
(iv) to study social aspects/factors in terms of knowledge, attitude and practice in land resource management and degradation.
This study highlights the need for studying the development process thorough interdisciplinary research since development issues are complementary.
Topographical maps covered under Number 1435 C1 and C3 for 1962 and 1976 and aerial photographs of 1:25,000 scale for years 1957 and 1982 were used to determine spatial and temporal changes of land use patterns in West Malombe Catchment. From the topographical sheets, classification of the area was already made and detail was extracted from a 1:50000-scale map, whose results are represented by figures 4 and 5. In the case of the 1957 and 1982 photography, the area had to be classified using 20 and 18 exposures, respectively. The extra two for 1957 include those that covered the waters of Lake Malombe. The results are indicated in figures 3 and 6. The categories used for the classification have been kept simple, but the results, however, give a clear picture of the main changes that had taken place in land use and vegetation cover between 1957 and 1982. Stereoscopic interpretation was carried out using ST4 photo-interpretation instrument and hand lens. This facilitated rapid stereo viewing and provided a magnification that could be varied from three to 15.5 times. Examination of each stereo-pair was carried out at a magnification of three times and sometimes at a much higher magnification. At the six times magnification, crop ridges could be clearly seen where they were not covered by dry season weed growth.
The spatial extent of land use problems was analysed through the same topographical maps and aerial photographs interpretations. Most erosion features were visible in direct stereoscopic viewing and were therefore identifiable by their form, shape and size, and their association with other features. To a lesser extent, tone, texture, shadow and pattern were also used. Thus notes on the erosion, sedimentation and other relevant features seen on each stereo overlap and a judgement of the severity of the erosion were made. As far as possible this was related to the physical environment of the area. Also physical observation or visual observation was used during fieldwork which was useful in the validation of the observation made during the photo interpretation. Views of the Land Husbandry staff on land resource use and mismanagement were obtained during these field visits.
Two other studies have provided data, namely, Land utilisation study: Customary land sector 1996, commissioned by the Government of Malawi, and the International Centre for Research in Agro-forestry (ICRAF) study of land use and cover for all the ADDs in Malawi 1996. The latter, which made use of the 1995 air photography, was particularly useful for TA Chimwala area, which was one of he enumeration areas, yielding some interesting results on land use and the nature of land degradation in the more recent past. These aerial photographs with a scale of 1:25,000 were taken between June and September 1995, and used in the assessment of erosion.
While the interpretation of aerial photographs is one valuable technique of evaluating environmental change, it is also crucial to note its weaknesses. For example, very old photographs have inferior resolution and ground-truthing is impossible. Scale differences between one set of aerial photographs and another, as well as scale distortion on individual photographs particularly in rugged terrain, bring to the fore the problem of compatibility. Equally important, if aerial photographs were taken at different times of the year (different seasons), it is difficult to interpret environmental change during the intervening years.
By targeting areas of Western Malombe Catchment, the study attempts to identify the reasons for the choice of land use and how it is reflected in the spatial arrangement of those uses. One hundred and forty seven household heads were interviewed using a questionnaire during the months of May, June and July 1995. This study had attracted the interest of the ADD officials, leading to one Land Husbandry Officer, two Land Husbandry Assistants and one assistant from the Evaluation and Monitoring Unit of the ADD being released to assist in the field collection of data. Thus the assistants were used as enumerators and the officer as a field supervisor. The importance of the various land use activities is based on the frequency response of the respondents. This approach in ranking is in line with the commonly used repertory grid analysis in human geography (Fransella and Bannister 1977; Shaw 1981; Hudson 1980; and Barker, Oguntoyinbo, and Richards 1977). The methodology has the most important advantages of flexibility and minimisation of interviewer interference. Some selected socio-economic variables concerned with respondents and their households were tested for association with the choice of land use activity, use of conventional conservation practices, and coping strategies for environmental hazards using chi-square (X2). In particular, household land was measured for association with reasons for cultivating crops and rearing such livestock, attendance and level of education with following land conservation practices and coping ways against environmental hazards, and crops cultivated for land conservation measures. These activities in the study have revealed important patterns that surround the more complex decision-making process of land users.
The 147 household heads were interviewed with the major aim of somehow generating a full cost-benefit analysis of their land use activities. The results in this report, however, have been limited to crop and livestock yield of some selected land use activities. Productivity analysis as originally hoped for has not been undertaken because a detailed measurement of variables was not done. For example, if one was to measure crop productivity levels, it required the availability of data regarding actual crop output and actual amount of hectarage under that particular crop. These specificities were not possible under this study.
The social aspects of land degradation were analysed in relation to personal characteristics regarding mainly age, education, occupation and accessibility to information, through radio and extension service, land tenure, landholding size, enterprise lucrativeness and government's enforcement measures on better land use and management. The main source of the data for this aspect of the study has been responses of the 147 interviewees. However, official stance regarding land use and management and peoples' response to it through the visible practices have been used in the analysis of the effectiveness or otherwise of Government's efforts.
One basic and pragmatic factor for the choice of this area related to its proximity to Chancellor College. Secondly, the study area has experienced some of the worst ecological disasters through floods and visibly severe symptoms of land degradation in the form of soil erosion and deforestation. Conclusion with the Programme Manager and Land Husbandry staff of the Machinga ADD enabled the researcher to purposely focus on WMC as a critical site. The area is most appropriate as "field school" laboratory for Geography researchers interested in sustainable land resource management.
West Malombe Catchment (WMC) forms part of Mangochi district, headed by a District Commissioner. However, from the point of view of provision of agricultural services, WMC area is in the Machinga Agricultural Development Division (ADD) spatial system, formerly known as Liwonde. The ADD shares borders with Mozambique in the east, on Blantyre ADD and Salima ADD in the southwest and west (fig. 1). An ADD is in charge of the Programme Manager. It is administratively broken down into Rural Development Projects (RDP), which are headed by the Project Officer and in turn split into Extension Planning Areas (EPA) under Development Officers.
Mangochi RDP (see fig. 2) is situated in the northern part of the ADD and has an area of 345,000 ha (Venema 1991). The RDP has five EPAs: MNG 1 in the north-west, MNG 3 in the south-west, NMG 4 in the south-east, MNG 8 in the east and MNG 9 in the north. The Project Offices are at Mangochi. WMC thus specifically lies within MNG 3.
Fig. 1. Machinga Agricultural Development Division
Fig. 2. EPA's and Agro-ecological Zones, Mangochi RDP
Knowledge on topography, precipitation patterns and agro-ecological zones is important for understanding the agricultural activity and environmental change in general.
From the land resources appraisal by Venema (1991), MNG 3 falls in the natural region of Phiurilongwe Hills (PH) in an altitudinal range of 500 - 1000 masl, underlying a gneiss bedrock. The PH is thus an upland area, consisting of two agro-ecological zones which have different lengths of growing period (LGP), namely, North, East and South Phirilongwe Hills (PH1) and West and Central Phirilongwe Hills (PH2).
The PH1 is made up of two sections: rolling hill sand plains in the northeast and a ridge in the south. The zone is underlain by Basement Complex Rocks, which mainly consist of geniuses. Slopes vary within the range of 2-25 percent. Soils on the hills and ridges are mostly moderately deep, well-drained and medium textured and classified as Eutric Cambisols and Haplic Phaeozems (Rudic Phase). Deep soil, classified as Haplic Luvisols and Luvic Phaeozems, are found on the gently sloping footslopes. Mean annual rainfall is 800 - 1,200 mm and LGP around 135 days on the plains and around 150 days in the hills. Mean monthly temperature is 22.50C - 250 C in the growing period. The area is mostly covered by mixed low altitude savannah and Brachystegia woodland. Cultivation is sparse with maize, pulses, groundnuts, cotton and cassava as the main crops.
The PH2 contains the Phirilongwe Hills proper and surrounding uplands. The hills are moderately steep with dominant slopes of 13 - 25 percent and have moderately deep, well drained, coarse to medium textured, gravely soils which have been classified as Eutric Cambisols and Haplic Phaeozems (rudic phase). The uplands around the hills have gentleslopes (2 - 6 percent) and have deep, well-drained, medium to fine textured soils, classified as Chromic and Haplic Luvisols. Mean annual rainfall range is the same as that of the PH1 area while the LGP ranges between 150-180 days. Vegetation and land use is similar to that of PH1.
In general the Phirilonge Hills (Ph1 and 2) have areas not only with steep slopes, which are not suitable for cultivation, but also with gentle to moderate slopes and deep soils, which are moderately suitable for various crops. In terms of forestry, PHG1 and 2 are moderately suitable for Azadirachta indica, callitris Hugellis, Cassia siamea, Cordyla africana, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Eucalyptus tereticornis and Malia azedarach.
Table 1 indicates that at district level, Mangochi represented about 5.7 percent, 5.5 percent and 6.2 percent of the national population in 1966, 1977 and 1987, respectively. The intercensal annual growth rate between 1966 - 1977 and 1977 - 1987 for the district stood at 2.4 percent and 5.0 percent, representing the population increase of 29.9 percent and 64.2 percent, respectively. The district growth rate was slightly below the national average of 2.9 percent in the period 1966 - 1977, but well above the 3.7 percent for the period 1977 - 1987. The proportion of males to females has been below the national average in the three censuses, probably due to out-migration of the male population for wage employment to urban areas in the country as well as to the mines in Southern Africa.
Table 1. Mangochi district population and TA Chimwala: Percentages, growth rates, sex and tribe, 1966 - 1987
Population Variable |
1966 |
1977 |
1987 |
Totals |
232,692 |
302,341 |
496,576 |
Percentage out of total national population |
5.8 |
5.4 |
6.2 |
Percentage of population increase |
(na) |
29.9 |
64.2 |
Intercensal annual growth rate |
(na) |
2.4 |
5.0 |
(Malawi average) |
(na) |
(2.9) |
(3.7) |
Density |
37 |
48 |
79 |
Sex ratio |
80 |
84 |
90 |
TA Chimwala |
|
|
|
Totals |
23,078 |
36,752 |
73,321 |
Intercensal annual growth rate |
(na) |
4.9 |
8.2 |
Density |
24 |
48 |
95 |
SOURCE: National Statistical Office (NSO) (1980, 1993).
The population density for the district in the period 1977-1987 showed a dramatic rise, probably reflecting the rapid intercensal annual growth rate. Even more useful insights can be gained from the analysis of net migration, i.e., the difference between persons who moved into the place of enumeration and those who moved out. Such a movement can be either for a lifetime (those who moved since birth) or for a period (those who moved 12 months before census). By using the 1987 context, rates of internal migration can be estimated. Thus the lifetime net migration rate was +1.0 (Mwafongo 1993). The district was a net gainer of population. In the Malawian context, migration linkages have been associated with a tremendous structural change in the economy that occurred in the 1970s (Mkandawire, Jaffe, and Bartoli 1990; Kalipeni 1992). In particular, the examination of net migration of predominantly rural districts, Mangochi district included, reveal that they have experienced rapid expansion of the agricultural estate sector with its attendant result of creating job opportunities as tenants.
In the specific case of Traditional Authority (TA) Chimwala area, which constitutes WMC, increasing population densities in the two intercensal periods was associated with Government order to the TA and subordinates that they were to receive and allocate land to any immigrant from other districts looking for land to settle on, including those who were fleeing from the war perpetrated by the Portuguese and later by the guerrilla movement in Mozambique. The then President of the Malawi Republic used to go around and publicly declare that those who were fleeing from the war in Mozambique were their brothers and sisters, hence there was a need to welcome them and provide them with the necessary land for their survival. In fear of the Government directive, settlements have been established even in marginally suitable terrain.
The other school of thought is that before these aliens from either Mozambique or other districts were given portions of land for settlement in the WMC area, the indigenous communities used to have gardens there in an isolated manner. The main problem in having gardens in this area was that it was infested with monkeys and wild pigs, which used to devastate the crops grown there. The solution was for those who had gardens in this area to spend most of the rainy season there chasing monkeys and indeed tending their crops. However, it is important to note that people did not want to stay in this area which was isolated (Paseli 1984). Thus, for those who came to TA Chimwala area seeking land to settle, it was easy for the authority to allocate them land in this area in the hope of increasing the population in the catchment area to act as buffer zones against the crop-marauding animals.
Economic infrastructure investment in the area include a tarmac road running through the study area (fig. 1). Subsistence agriculture forms the main source of livelihood, with communities situated along Lake Malombe being heavily engaged in fishing. Malawi has just evolved from a single party rule of three decades to pluralistic politics. The study area is situated in the stronghold of the ruling United Democratic Front (UDF).
