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GENDER AND HIGHER EDUCATION IN POST-COLONIAL ZIMBABWE: TENTATIVE REFLECTIONS ON POLICY ISSUES
T. M. Mashingaidze*
Abstract
Social configurations, development projects, and even analyses in the academe, have largely been androcentric due to the dominance of patriarchy as the mode of existence. Women’s interests and concerns over the years have been subsidiary to those of men. Many organizations now seek to reverse this by establishing an even keel for men and women. Governments are promoting gender equality and equity through the implementation of gender sensitive policies and programmes. This is being done by according women preferential treatment in jobs and promotions, quota systems in political party candidate lists, enrolment in schools and colleges, and by the elimination of gender restrictions in all spheres of life. In order to show regard for women’s rights, the engendering of policies, programmes and projects of governments, training institutions, NGOs, bilateral and multilateral organizations and other interested partners in development and governance is imperative. This paper seeks to make a historical critique of the application of gender, as a concept and a framework of policy formulation in post-colonial Zimbabwe’s higher education sector by academics and administrators. The underlying argument of the paper is that the higher education sector is not “sufficiently” gender mainstreamed. This is so in spite of the fact that as early as 1992, the University of Zimbabwe adopted affirmative action policy.
Introduction
Gender as a concept, an analytical category and a guiding philosophy for policy formulation and programme implementation, is topical among contemporary Zimbabwean policy makers, development planners, human rights activists and academics. There is consonance on the need to incorporate gender into development policies and programmes through gender mainstreaming. Over the years, women’s access to resources and opportunities of life has been disproportionately inferior to those of men. They have had limited access to crucial resources, such as land, livestock and business opportunities. Their participation in the public domain has been limited.1 The historical marginalisation of women has to be abolished. “Traditional expectations” of women’s roles negatively affect their rights on equal access to resources and opportunities, and to participation in decision-making processes. Consequently, all developmental policies and programmes of academic institutions, Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs), bilateral and multi lateral organizations and governments should be gender-sensitive. Most people in the Zimbabwean higher education sector seem aware of the need for gender equity and equality but reality on the ground proves otherwise. Women are grossly under-represented as students, lecturers and administrators. Most universities do not have clear-cut gender-mainstreaming policies. Some have affirmative action policies; but these appear to be mere policy frameworks which do not have any significant bearing on reality. There are no gender equity policies with reference to staff recruitment, retention and promotion, as well as staff development policies. Of course, many university adverts for staff recruitment end with the familiar phrase, Women are encouraged to apply. Such implied gender sensitivity does not tally with specific goals within the universities themselves. Deliberate long-term efforts should be enacted to empower women in the academe. However, universities at times face the invidious position of not having an ample base from which they can select competent women as either staff or students. The lower education system still has a gender related bottleneck system, whereby women’s representation shrinks as we proceed with the education hierarchy, so much so that, by the time of entry into universities women will be grossly underrepresented.
Gender Mainstreaming Higher Education
Women are underrepresented in Zimbabwean higher education as students, lecturers and administrators. Men preponderantly occupy most of the executive posts,2 such as those of deans, bursars, registrars, pro-vice-chancellors and vice chancellors. Out of more than twelve universities in the country, only the Zimbabwe Open University and the Women’s University in Africa have female vice chancellors. At the Midlands State University, out of the twelve executive posts, women occupy only three. In spite of affirmative action policies women constitute less than a third of the student and teaching staff compositions of universities.3 In student leadership bodies, such as Student Representative Councils, women constitute less than 20%. At the University of Zimbabwe, no female until 1997 occupied any of the top three posts4 in the Student Representative Council (SRC). However, the first female secretary general’s stint was “short lived as she resigned from the post in April 1998 due to harassment by male students and lack of support from female students”5. In 2004/5, the first female SRC president in any of the country’s universities assumed the post at the Midlands State University. Generally, student politics are a microcosm of national politics, it is apparently male biased in terms of practice and style. Political space is heavily androcentric; those females who try to challenge this and assert themselves are viewed as odd. In spite of the existence of tough rules against harassment, male students try to regulate female behaviour, especially in terms of dressing. Those female students who try to put on mini skirts and heavy make up are castigated and mobbed regularly. From 1980 to 1992, women constituted 23.76% of the total number of students enrolled in local universities. The following table clearly shows this.
Table 1. Distribution of female university students: 1980-1992
|
Year |
Universities |
Teachers’ Colleges |
|
1980 |
22.05% |
54.01% |
|
1981 |
22.53% |
47.81% |
|
1982 |
22.00% |
43.96% |
|
1983 |
22.24% |
40.70% |
|
1984 |
22.59% |
41.08% |
|
1985 |
23.41% |
45.27% |
|
1986 |
23.79% |
41.70% |
|
1987 |
24.39% |
37.75% |
|
1988 |
25.07% |
43.32% |
|
1989 |
24.06% |
41.36% |
|
1990 |
24.33% |
43.46% |
|
1991 |
24.78% |
44.75% |
|
1992 |
25.25% |
45.33% |
Source: Statistical Yearbook, 19937
Until 1994, female students constituted less than 27% of the whole university student body. When these figures are juxtaposed against women’s population on the national scale it becomes apparent that they are underrepresented. Therefore, gender mainstreaming is highly called for. It may be conceptualised in two different ways: on the one hand, it is an integrationist strategy, which implies that gender issues are addressed within the existing development policy, strategies and priorities. Hence, throughout a project cycle, gender concerns are integrated where applicable. On the other hand, mainstreaming also means agenda setting, which implies the transformation of existing development agenda using a gendered perspective.8 There is a growing awareness that gender inequality is not only costly to women but to society as a whole. Eliminating gender discrimination across occupations and in salaries and benefits increases not only women’s income but also national income.9 Restricted access to education or training can hampers societies` ability to exploit their human resources potential.10 Research on economic growth and education shows that failing to invest in female education lowers the Gross National Product (GNP). Hill and King argue that, “Everything else being equal, countries in which the ratio of female-to-male enrolment in primary or secondary education is less than 0.75 can expect levels of GNP that are roughly 25% lower than countries in which there is less gender disparity in education”.11 Again, equality in education forms the foundation for women’s empowerment in all spheres in society. Through education, traditions and beliefs, which reinforce inequality between the sexes can be challenged, thereby erasing gender based discrimination.12
Contemporary development theorists argue that for any administrative or representative body (parliament, senate, commission of enquiry, etc.) programme or training, women should have at least 33% representation. If any group of people have such representation in any programme they are said to be fairly represented and their voices can be heard and have a bearing on policy formulation and outcomes. This quota is the critical mass. Some call for the Zebra approach to gender mainstreaming. Through this approach, women and men should have equal representation in any programme. Therefore, when universities recruit staff, enrol students and select their young and brilliant students for staff development programmes, deliberate attempts can be made to effect either of the aforementioned methods of mainstreaming gender. Gender mainstreaming entails a number of mechanisms which include the following:
Gender Analysis13
In terms of policy formulation, planning, implementation and evaluation gender analysis is imperative. It is the systematic effort to document and understand the roles of women and men within a given context, and how a particular activity, decision or plan will affect men and women.14 Gender analysis challenges those development models that measure benefits in purely economic terms, and which are largely based on the old “trickle down” theory.15 Gender analysis involves both qualitative and quantitative methods.
Quantitative gender analysis is the collection and analysis of sex-disaggregated data which reveals the differential impacts of development activities on women and men, and the effect gender roles and responsibilities have on development efforts. Disaggregating data by sex is necessary because it enables policy planners and evaluators to assess the differential impacts of projects on men and women. The following table shows this:
Table 2. Selected (Zimbabwe) O`Level results: Pass rates by gender, 1984-1994 (%)
1984
1988
1991
1994
Subject
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
English
23.2
15.6
16.6
14.9
20.6
19.4
22.2
24.4
Maths
25.6
10.6
26.5
13.7
29.9
15.7
29.7
18.1
Combined Science
48.2
21.1
13.7
14.5
34.0
15.8
38.2
19.9
Shona
45.5
43.7
63.9
65.4
56.2
57.9
55.8
61.8
Ndebele
38.5
41.1
60.7
64.2
60.7
64.2
61.5
71.3
Source: Adapted from G. Kanyenze, Engendering budgets in the Zimbabwean context, p. 33.
The above table reveals that the pass rates are low but they are much lower for girls, especially in technical subjects, such as mathematics and science. This is a reflection on the cultural values that give preference to boys` as opposed to girls’ education. The values are reinforced at home and at schools, creating a defeatist attitude.16 Besides high failure rates for girls, the drop out rate was also higher. For example, between 1987 and 1995, the drop out rate for secondary school pupils was 70% for both sexes, 74% for girls, and 65% for boys.17 This scenario shows up in the higher education sector where universities at times do not get the requisite number of female applicants to meet their enrolment gender quotas.
Gender analysis also reveals the differential impacts of programmes to be implemented on men and women. Systematic assessment of the gender dimensions of legislation, a policy or a programme ensures a holistic picture of the costs and benefits, for men as well as women, of an initiative before it is taken. Gender analysis enables fair representation for men and women in societal pursuits.18
Gender analysis also ensures gender sensitivity. This refers to perceptiveness and responsiveness concerning differences in gender roles, responsibilities, challenges and opportunities. Policy planners, implementers and evaluators need to be gender sensitive if gender equality and sustainable development are to be realized. Related to this is the need for some gender-sensitive indicators. An indicator is a statistical measurement that shows the change in a particular context over a given period. A gender-sensitive indicator is therefore a measurement of gender related changes over time.19 For example, gender sensitive indicators could show change in the number of women enrolled at university XX over a ten-year period. Gender sensitive indicators are necessary, especially, for base line surveys, programme evaluations and impact assessments. Therefore, Zimbabwean universities can incorporate information on women and men being trained and/ or employed in each of the departments over the next five years to see if the gender mainstreaming strategy/agenda is working. For example, gender sensitive indicators could be used to guide enrolment in institutions of higher learning. For example, assuming University XX will enrol 8000 students per annum for the next five years, the projected timeline for gender mainstreaming could be as follows:
Table 3. Projected timeline for gender mainstreaming
|
Year |
2006 |
2007 |
2008 |
2009 |
2010 |
|
Gender |
M F |
M F |
M F |
M F |
M F |
|
No. of Students |
5400 2600 |
5100 2900 |
4800 3200 |
4500 3500 |
4200 3800 |
Any gender-mainstreaming programme should have means and ways of measuring success and assessing change over a given period. Targets to be met or realized should be clearly outlined. These should be based on the results of gender analysis. For example, the university authorities could decide that, out of the total number of people to be employed in 2006 at least 25 % should be women, and then the number increases by 10% annually until parity in terms of sex representation is achieved. The achievement or failure of these targets has to be assessed both quantitatively and qualitatively. Through analysis of the university’s modus operandi, the reasons for the nature of the outcome can be established and a redress sought. As long as you have gender sensitive indicators, performance and appraisal systems can be effected at any level of the project cycle, i.e. planning, implementation, and evaluation/impact assessment.
Gender Training
For effective gender mainstreaming, gender-based training for policy planners, implementers, and project evaluators, impact assessors, and to some extent beneficiaries, is unavoidable. In universities, such key or strategic staff includes heads of departments, deans and faculty administrators. Training focuses on such areas as basic gender-awareness and sensitisation, gender analysis, gender planning, and the use of gender sensitive indicators in monitoring and evaluation. Universities can act as nuclei or catalysts for change by carrying out gender sensitisation and outreach programmes into secondary schools and the wider community. The Midlands State University State’s Master’s degree in education programme has a compulsory gender studies module. This enables all the teachers doing the programme to appreciate the fundamentals of gender issues. Often there is conflict between those stuck in the gender insensitive status quo mentality and those aiming for reform hence there is need for gradualism and sensitivity in gender mainstreaming. If it is done radically and rapidly, conflict and resistance is inevitable.
Conclusion
Gender mainstreaming is imperative in contemporary development planning. Universities are crucial centres for change and gender mainstreaming their curriculum, enrolments, and general operations, as it will enable them to fulfil this mandate. Enhancing quality education by women and men, and removing gender stereotyping in the curriculum, career choices and the professions, is the sine qua non for a sustainable development. Obstacles to women’s participation in higher education need to be eradicated. Recruitment, enrolments, promotions and organizational structures need to be gender mainstreamed.
Notes
For a historical overview of the Zimbabwean case, see Elizabeth Schmidt, Peasants, traders and wives: shona women in the history of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939, Harare, Baobab Books, 1996; see also Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. J. Can women’s voices be recovered from the past? Grappling with the absence of Women voices in pre-colonial history of Zimbabwe”, paper presented at the Writing African Women: Poetics and Politics of African Gender Research International Conference, University of Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa, January 2005.
These are the Vice Chancellor, the Pro-Vice Chancellor, the Registrar, the Bursar, the Librarian, six faculty deans and the dean of students
This is so in spite of affirmative action policies adopted by various institutions. For example since the inception of our Department of History and Development Studies at the Midlands State University we have always accorded women preferential treatment in terms enrolment criteria. We have taken women with at least two points less than those of men, but in most cases their number do not constitute more than a third of the overall intake.
The top three posts are those of President, Vice President and Secretary General. The first female Secretary General was Commence Muchena. In May 2004, Gladys Hlatswayo was appointed to the same position, becoming the second female to occupy one of the top three posts.
See M Magaramombe, Female SEC leader must inspire attitude change, Daily Mirror, 10 June 2004.
This female president, Tendayi Wenyika, assumed the post after the suspension of the male incumbent. So she assumed the post by default.
These figures were extrapolated from O Chibaya and E. S. Gudhlanga, Striving to achieve gender equity in education-A Zimbabwean experience: Successes and challenges. Paper presented at the Southern African Society for Education, 27th Annual Conference, 6-8 September 2001.
Elizabeth McGregor and Fabiola Bazo, Gender mainstreaming in science and technology: A reference manual for governments and other stakeholders, London, Commonwealth Secretariat, June 2001, p. 101.
Ibid.
See D. Elson, Integrating gender into government budgets within a context of economic reform. In D. Budlender, D. Elson, G. Hewitt and T. Mukhopadhyay, Gender budgets make cents, London, Commonwealth Secretariat, January 2002, p. 23.
Hill, A. and E. King quoted in D. Elson, integrating gender into government budgets within a context of economic reform, p. 24.
World campaign for human rights, human rights-discrimination against women: The convention and the committee. Fact Sheet, no. 22, p. 19.
For more details on gender mainstreaming see Elizabeth McGregor and Fabiola Bazo, Gender mainstreaming in science and technology: A reference manual for governments and other stakeholders. London, Commonwealth Secretariat, June 2001.
See C. A. Brautigem, International human rights law: The relevance of gender. In W. Benedex, E. M. Kisaakye and G. Oberleitmer (eds.), The human rights of women: Inernational instruments and African experiences, p. 22.
See Beyond the barriers: The state, the economy and women`s employment, 1984-1990. National Advisory Council on the Employment, Wellington, 1990.
G. Kanyenze, Engendering budgets in the Zimbabwean context. In D. Budlender (ed.), Engendering budgets: The Southern African experience, Harare, UNIFEM, 1999.
Ibid pp. 33-34.
See also Beyond the barriers: The state, the economy and women’s employment, 1984-1990. National Advisory Council on Employment, Wellington, 1990.
Ibid.
References
Brautigem, C. A. International human rights law: The relevance of gender. In: W. Benedex, E. M. Kisaakye and G. Oberleitmer (eds.), The human rights of women: International instruments and African experiences.
Chibaya, O. and E. S. Gudhlanga. 2001. Striving to achieve gender equity in education-A Zimbabwean experience: Successes and challenges. Paper presented at the Southern African Society for Education 27th Annual Conference, 6-8 September 2001.
Daily Mirror. 10 June 2004.
Elson, D. 2002. Integrating gender into government budgets within a context of economic reform. In: D. Budlender, D. Elson, G. Hewitt and T. Mukhopadhyay. 2002. Gender budgets make cents. London, Commonwealth Secretariat, January 2002.
Kanyenze. 1999. Engendering budgets in the Zimbabwean context. In: D. Budlender (ed.). Engendering budgets: The Southern African experience. Harare, UNIFEM.
McGregor, E. and F. Bazo. 2001. Gender mainstreaming in science and technology: A reference manual for governments and other stakeholders. London, Commonwealth Secretariat, June 2001.
National Advisory Council on Employment. 1990. Beyond the barriers: The state, the economy and women’s employment, 1984-1990. Wellington.
Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. J. 2005. Can women’s voices be recovered from the past? Grappling with the absence of women voices in pre-colonial history of Zimbabwe. Paper presented at the international conference on Writing African Women: Poetics and Politics of African Gender Research. University of Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa, January 2005.
Schmidt, E. 1992. Peasants, traders and wives: Shona women in the history of Zimbabwe, 1870-1939. Harare, Baobab Books.
World Campaign for Human Rights. Human rights-discrimination against women: The convention and the committee. Fact Sheet, no. 22.
* Lecturer in the Department of History and Development Studies, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe.