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181 OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). Dryland Husbandry Project; Khartoum Univ. (Sudan). Institute of Environmental Studies; Linkoping Univ. (Sweden). Research Programme on Environmental Policy and Society

Dryland husbandry in the Sudan. Workshop report.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). Dryland Husbandry Project. OSSREA DHP Publications Series. 1996. no. 1, iii + 83p.

National Workshop on Dryland Husbandry in the Sudan, Khartoum (Sudan), 29-30 November 1995.

Compilation of selected papers presented at the national workshop on dryland husbandry in the Sudan that provide the state of knowledge on dryland husbandry in the country. Discusses, in a chapter entitled "Background to the workshop', the objectives, organization and recommendations on the current project activities related to research, appropriate interventions, training, and general topics on proper dryland husbandry. It also includes papers titled: "Dryland husbandry in Sudan with emphasis on the semi-desert zone", "The savannah range-land of the Sudan", "A synopsis of research on pastoralism in eastern Sudan with emphasis on camel husbandry and ecology", and "Indications of recovery in biomass and soil organic matter of Sudan's Sahel region: A case study of Kordofan".

183 OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). Dryland Husbandry Project; Nairobi Univ. (Kenya). Department of Range Management; Linkoping Univ. (Sweden). Research Programme on Environmental Policy and Society

Dryland husbandry in Kenya. Workshop report.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). Dryland Husbandry Project OSSREA DHP Publications Series. 1997. no. 2, iii + 106p.

National Workshop on Dryland Husbandry in Kenya, Kibwezi (Kenya), 17-19 April 1996.

Compilation of selected papers presented at the first national workshop on dryland husbandry in Kenya that provide the state of knowledge on dryland husbandry in the country. Discusses, in a chapter titled: "Background to the workshop and project area", the objectives and organization of the workshop as well as a description of the bio-physical environment, vegetation, livestock and crop resources, demographic and settlement patterns, and economic potentials of Kibwezi Division, the Dryland Husbandry Project area. There are two main papers and a summary of supportive papers in each of the three major theme areas, viz., production potential and dynamics of agro-pastoral systems; integrated development approach to agro-pastoral systems; and recent advances in pastoral extension services and the role of indigenous knowledge. The titles of the main papers are: "The agricultural production potential and production strategies in Kibwezi Division of Makueni District", "Paradigmatic shifts in rangeland management of African savannahs: Implications for pastoral development. A case of northeastern Kenya", "Integrated development strategies in Greater Kibwezi Division with special emphasis on agriculture and related issues", "Non-conventional feed resources for agropastoral production systems", "Pastoral and agro-pastoral extension services, how they differ from conventional livestock development extension services", and "Animal draft power in poor resource based agro-pastoral system as a key to development and increased production".

184 Bekele, F. [Fetenu Bekele].

The gender dimension in development projects. Concepts, approaches and framework of gender analysis.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). Dryland Husbandry Project. OSSREA DHP Publications Series. 1997. no. 3, iii + 53p.

After an introduction of basic concepts such as shifts in development strategies and the historical development of the women in development (WID) movement, with emphasis on emergence of the gender concept, gender perspectives in identifying development needs, women's practical gender needs, women's strategic gender needs and interests, and the shift from WID to the gender and development (GAD) approach, the author reviews the various policy approaches that have been adopted for women in developing countries as well as their program focus and the extent to which they have met practical and strategic gender needs of women. These are the welfare, anti-poverty, efficiency and empowerment approaches. Discusses reasons for the emphasis, given or need to be given, to gender analysis in development intervention, discussing the various frameworks that gender proponents have utilized individually or in combinations, viz., activity, access and control framework; women's empowerment framework; and rapid gender analysis (RGA) - knowledge, activities, resources and incentives (KARI) - framework. Finally discusses the experience of adoption and promotion of approaches in WID in development interventions through programs and projects, with focus on Africa.

185 Abbas, Babiker

Ethnoveterinary practices of camel pastoralists in Butana, north-eastern Sudan.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). Dryland Husbandry Project. OSSREA DHP Publications Series. 1997. no. 4, iv + 54p.

Presents findings from a study on various aspects of the ethnoveterinary activities of pastoralists, mainly camelmen, in northeastern Sudan, with emphasis on social and personal profiles of traditional healers, their source of knowledge, inputs utilized, and mode of payment for rendered services; types, frequencies and procedures of surgical interventions performed by healers; plants or their parts commonly used in phytotherapy; treatments for other ailments; and herder's knowledge and practices regarding vaccination, general disease control, supplementation and special feeding, aetiology and disease theory, and disease terminology.

186 Tedla, S.; Lemma, K. [Shibru Tedla; Kifle Lemma].

Environmental management in Ethiopia: Have the national conservation plans worked?

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Environmental Forum Publications Series. 1998. no. 1, 78p.

Presents results of a study aimed at assessing whether the environmental conservation plans that had been hitherto formulated in Ethiopia have worked, and if not, to find out why this has happened, by examining the prevailing situation in environmental management and by identifying missing links in proper environmental management. After a background on the global view about the importance of natural resources management and environmental management initiatives in Africa, the study highlights the major environmental concerns in Ethiopia, viz., the ecological crisis due to land degradation and deforestation, population growth and its uneven distribution, mismanagement of natural resources, insufficient attention to biodiversity conservation and management, absence of land use planning, lack of participation in resources management, natural resources tenure insecurity, and absence of environmental economics. Reviews the evolution of environmental conservation policies and legislation in the country during the pre-Second World War period, the laissez-faire period of 1957-1974, the period between 1974-1991, and the post-1991 period. Discusses, briefly, the mandates of each of the major governmental institutions active in environmental management. Reasons for the lack of impact of environmental conservation plans are identified as being inappropriate government policies with regard to land reform, and ownership and management of forest resources; decentralization of environmental management responsibilities; a lack of popular participation; as well as problems inherent in the policies, laws and regulations, and the implementing mechanisms. Assesses future prospects in environmental management in relation to the provisions of the Constitution, sectoral legislation and institutional legislation. Includes recommendations regarding environmental laws as well as the 6 constituent programmes of the country's Fifth Development Plan.

187 Fuuna, Peter

The impact of structural adjustment policy on the energy crisis and the environment: A gender comparative study of rural and urban households.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Gender Issues Research Report Series. 1997. no. 1, ii + 54p.

This study was carried out in Kampala and Mbale districts of Uganda between the months of January and June, 1995. Its major objectives were to analyze the impact of the structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) on household energy utilization and access to energy sources among rural and urban dwellers. It further aimed to ascertain the adaptation struggles of both men and women and the effect of the energy crisis on the environment. The participatory rapid appraisal (PRA) or participatory learning and action (PLA) methodology was used for data collection. The findings reveal that the SAPs in the energy sector enacted by the Ugandan government have had varying effects amongst the different categories of rural agricultural producers and urban households. It was thus found out that some households had gained while others were still vulnerable. In conclusion, the energy crisis had a negative impact on the rural than on the urban environment. Women-headed households who have no alternative but to continue to depend on scarce monetized fuelwood are particularly affected.

188 Ongile, Grace

Determinants of women's participation in industry and service sectors.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Gender Issues Research Report Series. 1997. no. 2, ii + 34p.

This study analyzes factors influencing women's participation in industry and services in Kenya. Women face various constraints that affect their inter-sectoral mobility in the labour market. These constraints include, discrimination in the labour market in terms of wage differentials, different obligations for men and women, and the burden of reproduction. Due to these constraints, women's participation in the labour market is concentrated in certain sectors thus affecting productivity in the whole economy. During this era of structural adjustment programmes, the skewedness situation of women in certain sectors of the labour market implies that they will face higher requirements for mobility than men. These programmes are also likely to affect women differently from men due to their roles in the society. This study was done in Nairobi and Thika areas of Kenya. The focus of the study was on the following industries: banking, food and textile industries. A sample of 150 women was randomly selected from the three industries. The study found out that important determinants of women's participation in the two sectors is influenced by age, marital status, educational level, number of children and household income. Women do not actively participate in trade unions due to lack of awareness. Factors affecting demand for female labour include pregnancy related issues, protective legislation and occupational segregation. Policy recommendations include: wider range of educational and vocational training so that women can compete effectively with men in the labour market, changes in the legal framework aiming at educating women about their employment rights, gender sensitization programmes both for men and women, collecting disaggregated data by gender, and promoting more women to leadership roles.

189 Sachikonye, L. M.

Female workers in agribusiness in Zimbabwe.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Gender Issues Research Report Series. 1997. no. 3, iii + 82p.

Presents results of a study to investigate the working conditions of female workers in agribusinesses in Zimbabwe, focusing on the position of female workers in the plantation labour process and female labour utilization in the smallholder outgrower sector and exploring the emerging patterns and implications of the gender division of labour.

190 Nangendo, Stevie Moses

The web of poverty: Women and sugarcane farming in Bokoli location, Bungoma District, Kenya.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Gender Issues Research Report Series. 1998. no. 4, x + 84p.

Presents results of a study on the roles of women in both food crop production and cash crop (sugarcane) farming, on how women cope with the socio-economic constraints caused by the imposition of sugarcane farming, and on the constraints and choices of commercial and subsistence farming that bear on the status of women in Bokoli location, Bungoma District, western Kenya.

191 Peace, Habomugisha

Organizational commitment of female lecturers in higher institutions of learning in Uganda: Its nature and determinant factors, 1975-1993.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Gender Issues Research Report Series. 1998. no. 5, iv + 40p.

The purpose of this study was to isolate factors that influence organizational commitment (OC) of female lecturers in higher institutions of learning in Uganda. Out of 150 questionnaires distributed to female and male lecturers, the latter group to control the study, 115 usable ones were returned by females and 100 by males. The questionnaire measured personal variables, situational variables, role variables, job satisfaction, Protestant work ethic, absenteeism and OC. Data analysis was carried out using SPSS-X programs of correlation, chi-square, t-test, one way ANOVA, and stepwise multiple regression. Results indicated that religion, tenure, terms of service, previous job, Protestant work ethic, salary and professionalism did not significantly influence OC of either female or male lecturers. On the other hand, age, educational level, academic rank, job satisfaction, total package, institution and work load significantly influenced OC of both female and male lecturers. Marital status, incentives and faculty significantly influenced OC of female lecturers only, while number of economic dependents and absenteeism significantly influenced that of male lecturers only. When the two groups were combined, i.e. females and males, sex significantly influenced their OC. The best predictors of OC for lecturers were job satisfaction, work load, sex and age in that order of importance. It is recommended that the Government should improve on the total package so that lecturers are adequately remunerated for their labour. This will improve their feelings of equity and social exchange and hence increase their OC. Implications of the above findings are discussed.

192 Mwai, Wangari

Song as a protest tool for the women in the Swahili speaking Muslim community: A case study of two interior settlements in Kisumu Municipality.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Gender Issues Research Report Series. 1998. no. 6, iv + 41p.

Scholars have often argued that song as a genre in oral literature provides its person with a vehicle of self-expression. The genre, due to its therapeutic effect, has been exploited by the suffering and inferiorized in society to express their pains and agonies. Studies on Swahili literature indicate that the woman in Swahili speaking society has never held an enviable position. This has been especially due to an entrenched patriarchal culture in the society. Endless debates on whether this characteristic came with the Arab colonialists or is inherent in Swahili society could be held. For instance, Ireri Mbaabu asserts that it derives from Islamic culture. On the other hand, Trimingham, J.S., and the author's own research findings indicate that the instructions in Unyago - Swahili traditional rites - which instruct towards wifely obedience and submissiveness are unaccepted in Islamic teachings. It is probably impossible to settle once for all this long-standing debate. However, the study observes the fact that Swahili women were not better off in traditional coastal life, nor are they happier under the Islamic teachings. Thus, during the pre-Islamic and the prevailing Islamic era, the female gender in Swahili speaking society has been exploited. It has been suggested that through songs performed during Unyago, the woman in this society could be expressing her innermost thoughts. This is the spring board of this study. The study has explored the woman's voice in Unyago ritual songs. Through the collection, categorization and analysis of the thematic concerns of these songs, this study demonstrates the feelings and reactions that these women have against the rigid and oppressive gender relations in their society. In essence therefore, this study observes these songs as a necessary setting for the study of feminine empowerment and thus protest and resistance in Swahili speaking communities. The songs discussed therefore show the Swahili Muslim woman as one aspiring for freedom, recognition and self-fulfillment. That this is a mere intention clearly overshadows the passivity, submissiveness and domesticity long associated with womanhood in this society. The songs illustrate the struggle for a new image or portrait of the Swahili Muslim woman - one of resilience, courage, aggression, strength and resourcefulness. The first chapter of the document is an introduction, containing a generalized background to the problem under investigation, the context of the songs herein analyzed and the focus of the study. Methodology and a brief review of related literature form chapters two and three respectively. Chapter four provides a detailed content analysis of the songs collected in Kaloleni and Manyatta Arab settlements, followed by a conclusion in chapter five, an appendix of song texts and their English translations, and another appendix containing the general interview guides that were used.

193 Simala, Inyani K.

Sexist overtones in Kiswahili female metaphors: A critical analysis.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Gender Issues Research Report Series. 1998. no. 7, iv + 46p.

The fact that language is designed for accomplishing communicative ends places metaphors in a position of considerable functional vitality in Kiswahili language. This research reports on findings of a study carried out between May-October 1993 among the Waswahili of Mombassa, Kenya. The primary concern was to discover hidden meanings and thought pattern in metaphors used to refer to women. The approach to this study was empirical and theoretical. Most of the conclusions are based on data collected from the field. Respondents offered metaphors which, along with interpretations and discussion, served as the data of analysis. Considerable use was made of the large pool of sociological studies already done in Kenya. Historical documents also formed important reference materials. This study of Kiswahili female metaphor is not only an advancement of linguistic and social theory, but is also a social critique of one of culture's important component, language. Research findings reported here are a valuable contribution to the ever increasing literature on women. They point out an important direction in which efforts should be marshaled in the current studies and generalizations about women in general, and particularly women in Swahili society.

194 Malunga, Jane Seruwagi

Women employees in the informal sector Kampala, Uganda.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Gender Issues Research Report Series. 1998. no. 8, vi + 29p.

The study critically investigates the working conditions of women employees in the informal sector in Kampala, Uganda, by examining the nature of the employee-employer relationships. The study also explores the various factors responsible for the existing nature of the employee-employer relationship. The study specifically investigates how such factors as kinship relations, age, educational levels, position in household and family size affect the working conditions and terms of service of women employees. At the micro-level, the study examines how the existing social system of extended families bears on the working conditions of women employees. The study is carried out against the backdrop of the existing economic crises. The analysis also explores the linkage between the different economic activities in Owino market, indicating how they influenced each other. The study focuses on the catering activity in Owino market in Kampala. This economic activity is at the bottom of the informal sector spectrum which some researchers have termed the "community of the poor" (ECA/ATRCW/88). The key respondents included women employees, employers and government officials in Owino market represented by Market officials, Resistance Council officials and Kampala City Council officials. Data was collected mainly through unstructured interviews, in-depth interviews with key respondents and the observation method. Additional data was collected from secondary sources like textbooks and newspapers. The study has successfully investigated the working conditions of the women employees in the catering activity. Such factors as age, marital status, education levels, the social system of extended families and the government attitude towards the informal sector have been discovered to be the major factors influencing the employees' conditions of work.

195 Rutashobya, Lettuce Kinunda

Women entrepreneurship in Tanzania: Entry and performance barriers.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Gender Issues Research Report Series. 1998. no. 9, vi + 57p.

The overall objective of this study was to identify social, cultural and economic factors that hinder or limit women's entry into entrepreneurship in Tanzania as well as identify those factors that adversely affect their performance. A survey of 43 women entrepreneurs was conducted through a questionnaire, which was personally administered. A case study on the business start-up history of one successful woman entrepreneur was also included in the study. The findings of the study revealed that women participated in low-demand and service-oriented activities that were often prone to horizontal expansion. Their choice of activities, growth strategies, recruitment practices and reinvestment policies were all household-centered rather business-centered. The result is that most of the activities were gender typed. Analysis of the factors that led to the above entrepreneurial behaviour and hence their poor performance in business suggests that socio-cultural gender biases, prejudices, practices and the generally lack of gender-sensitive industrial policies are the main critical factors. Socio-cultural practices have led to an unequal division of labour to the disadvantage of women. This has led to women's multiple roles which have in turn engendered women's poor performance in business. It has been alluded to, in this report, that any interventions geared toward promoting female entrepreneurship should address both strategic and practical needs. Structural needs that would encompass a re-orientation of the economic policy and the industrial policy should be addressed. A successful way of identifying the strategic and practical needs of women should focus on the various entrepreneurial behaviour of women. Future research should investigate those factors that determine the spread of female entrepreneurship. Longitudinal data may reveal a trend in constraints to female entrepreneurship in Tanzania that this study was not able to uncover. Since barriers to female entrepreneurship may change over time, a clearer picture of the factors that influence growth of female entrepreneurship needs to come into focus.

196 Mhozya, Xavier

The specification and estimation of a macroeconometric model for Botswana.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Occasional Papers. 1991. no. 1, 29p.

Presents a macro-econometric model of Botswana that has been specified to capture the supply side of its economy and is based on the concepts of the two-gap models as specified by Cherry et al. and also incorporates the elements of the Dutch Disease syndrome. It is categorized into nine blocks and, in order to capture the effects of the Dutch Disease on the economy, the output, labour and capital input blocks are modeled at the sectoral level. A block-by-block specification, a flow chart indicating the linkage between blocks, and a description of model performance are included.

197 Nzioki, Elizabeth Akinyi

Women in food production: Their work and constraints. A case study in Mumbuni location (Machakos District - Kenya).

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Occasional Papers. 1991. no. 2, 29p.

Presents results of a study on the role of women in food production in Mumbuni, Machakos District, eastern Kenya with emphasis on an analysis of women's productive activities within the farm; identification of factors that influence farm productivity and women's access to and control of productive resources such as land, labour, credit, membership in cooperatives, information, training and other benefits; assessment of women's multiple roles within the household and the labour constraints they thus face; and assessment of their decision-making powers in order to demonstrate the extent of women's participation in and influence on farm production.

198 Gumaa, Yousit Tana

Kenana: A large-scale sugar project in the Sudan. An economic evaluation.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Occasional Papers. 1993. no. 3, 32p.

Presents a commercial and social appraisal of the Kenana sugar project, with data on the initial capital cost together with estimated fixed and variable costs of production, transport-to-port and debt servicing costs, revenues, terminal values of fixed and working capital, cash flow accounts for each year of the project, and internal rate of return as well as social costs and social benefits under the assumption that market prices adequately reflect the consumption benefits and cost involved, under the assumption that foreign workers will consume only part of their salaries in the Sudan, and after accounting for the fact that, in developing countries, development is normally given priority to the extent that the value of funds devoted to investment exceeds the social value of the same amount of funds devoted to consumption.

199 Munene, John C.

Structural adjustment, the psychological contract and discretionary cooperation of labour.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Occasional Papers. 1994. no. 4, 26p.

Investigates the response of labour (agent) and organizations (principal) to structural adjustment programmes in Sub-Saharan Africa, and especially in Uganda, focusing on: (i) the ability of either party to keep the psychological contract (used to define and measure the social exchange aspect of an employment relationship), (ii) the specific labour responses of interest, viz., discretionary cooperation, intentions to maintain one's employment relationships and the evaluation of the psychological contract, and (iii) the relationships between labour responses. The study found evidence of gross inability of the principal to keep the psychological contract and a consequent break of the agents' own contract; widespread complaints about the disappearance of drugs in the health services; deterioration of services as the majority of full-time employees supplement their earnings by other activities that impose a demanding regime on the time available for the formal employment; and finally that meeting mutual obligations and expectations is the key to a continuing relationship.

200 Mohammed, Nadir Abdel Latif

The development trap: Militarization, environmental degradation and poverty and prospects of military conversion.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Occasional Papers. 1994. no. 5, 48p.

Analyzes the direct effects of militarization, environmental stress, and poverty on socio-economic development in less developed countries (LDCs), exploring the interlinkages and feedbacks of these three factors on each other and the indirect effects of this causation on the development process. Focuses on the theoretical linkages and mechanisms of action in LDCs, with special emphasis on Africa. The study relies mainly on economic analysis to explain the obstacles facing the process of development.

201 Aredo, D. [Dejene Aredo].

The gender division of labour in Ethiopian agriculture: A study of time allocation among people in private and co-operative farms in two villages.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Social Science Research Report Series. 1995. no. 1, 57p.

In this study, different but complementary approaches were employed to investigate three types of variations (inter-regional, intra-household, and inter-farm organization) in household time allocation and access to resources with a view to making visible, to planners and development agencies, the relative contribution of women in Ethiopian agriculture and to shed some light on the problems of applying existing theories and concepts to the conditions of peasant households. The findings of the study reveal:- considerable variations in the gender division of labour (GDL) have existed between the two case study areas (Debre-Mewi Peasant Association in Gojjam and Legambo Agricultural Producers' Co-operative and adjacent farms in Alemaya wereda of Hararghe region) and between the private and socialist sectors. In the Ethiopian context, existing theories have limited relevance to the peasant sector. The GDL in both case study areas was somewhat different from what is commonly found in sub-Saharan Africa. Women's and children's contribution to agricultural production and the survival of the household must be greater than what is given in official statistics. Time required for housework was downward rigid suggesting an additional constraint to the programme of mobilizing women's labour for directly productive activities. The co-operativization programme had varying effects on women's labour, giving rise to both under-utilization and exploitation of women's labour depending upon location-specific mode of its implementation. Some degree of inequality has existed in respect of access to resources and decision-making by men and women in the study areas. Children's labour has been found to be substitutable for and complementary to women's labour thus suggesting possibilities of women having pro-natalist incentives within the rural household. Similarly, women's and children's labour has been found to be substitutable for and complementary to men's activities while men's labour is little involved in housework suggesting rigidity in factor (time) substitution within the household. These findings, therefore, must have some relevance for the design of national income accounting systems and for rural development projects as well as for theories explaining the GDL in peasant agriculture.

202 Rugumamu, Severine M.

Technology transfer through technical cooperation: The case of Tanzania.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Social Science Research Report Series. 1996. no. 2, 83p.

The study examines four sets of hypothesis in order to establish the effectiveness of technical co-operation (TC) in Tanzania, viz., the net impact of a project is likely to be large if the target population, the Government and donor agencies effectively participate in project identification, planning, design, and implementation; conflicts are likely to be minimized if the target population, the Government and donor agencies agree on the division of labour in project execution; problems of sustainability are likely to be avoided if the Government formulates and effectively implements a clear and comprehensive TC policy; and if joint project evaluations are undertaken, net TC pay-offs are likely to markedly enhance the technological competence of the target populations. The study analyzed four agricultural research-cum-training institutes as well as two adjacent villages, using documentary reviews and questionnaires, to determine the size and magnitude of foreign assistance to Tanzania, to assess effectiveness of TC in general and in the specific case studies, and to provide policy recommendations on how best to exploit the foreign resources provided to the country.

203 Syahuka-Muhindo, Arthur

Understanding women's participation in artisanal salt production at Lake Katwe in western Uganda, 1970-1990.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Social Science Research Report Series. 1996. no. 3, 70p.

Attempts to explain the various roles which have been and continue to be played by women in artisanal salt production (ASP) at Lake Katwe in western Uganda, underscoring the gender situation in salt production and focusing on the impact of colonial and post-colonial economic change on women in the hinterland of Lake Katwe; the form(s) and character of women's involvement in ASP in relation to the period under review; and the social and economic implications of increased women's labour dispensation in ASP. Concludes that the involvement of women in ASP has a long history, but that the dominant tendency has been that women's increased participation is a response to the crisis of the neo-colonial economy and politics which have eroded the material security of women in peasant agriculture, thereby releasing their labour for artisanal and "informal sector" spheres. The analysis has demonstrated that the phenomenal increase of women in ASP has not transformed their socio-economic conditions but rather that they have been pushed into a worse situation, having lost a social base in the countryside and being unable to accumulate beyond mere subsistence through ASP. Describes the conditions of living of salt-winners and salt-winning labourers.

204 Maro, Paul S.

Agricultural land management for sustainable production in Swaziland: A pilot study of Gege, Maphilenga and Zombodze areas.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Social Science Research Report Series. 1996. no. 4, 63p.

Presents results of a study as to whether the problems of land management generally observed in Swaziland, such as land degradation, soil erosion, overstocking and its consequences, and declining food production arose from lack of proper land use planning based on crop-soil suitability, or from the usufruct/communal land tenure system which might discourage investments on land, or from low producer prices and low rural income that leads to off-farm employment. The study found no serious "mismatch" of land use as practiced by the farmers in the Gege, Maphilenga and Zombodze areas and as recommended by FAO's soils and land suitability method, implying that land use planning by government officials will probably confirm current land uses but needs to integrate conservation and resource management measures. The study also established that the national usufruct system did not constitute a direct hindrance to making permanent investment for land improvement, as respondents did not express any fear of losing their land and pointed out the lack of capital and lack of water as the major hindrances. However communal ownership and use of grazing areas has revealed "the tragedy of the commons", resulting in overstocking, range degradation and soil erosion. The real problem of Swazi land tenure lies in the national distribution of land between Swazi Nation Land (52 percent of the land sustaining 70 percent of the population) and in large scale individual tenure (47 percent of land supporting 10 percent of the population). Off-farm wage employment was sought to supplement agricultural output for subsistence. It was not a contributing factor to low agricultural productivity as this labour was in excess of what the small farm units could absorb.

205 Sindiga, Isaac

Population change among the Maasai.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Social Science Research Report Series. 1996. no. 5, 99p.

This study on population change among the Maasai in Kenya attempts to probe the factors which may be responsible for the impaired fertility among these pastoralists. It set out to examine the effects of population and fertility changes on the society and their landscape; to investigate the way Maasai pastoral lifestyle and social structure regulated fertility, both in the past and at present; and to explore women's role in Maasai society and its effect on fertility. The analysis is done within the framework of proximate determinants of fertility, with emphasis on the effects of marital status, home environmental sanitation, type of marital union, age at menarche and first marriage, age at commencement of sexual intercourse, frequency of sexual intercourse, and incidence of stillbirths and abortion.

206 Ebong-Opyene, J.

Forms of peasant agricultural co-operatives in Uganda: a case study in Lango.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Social Science Research Report Series. 1996. no. 6, 121p.

The study has investigated the extent to which the character of capital that penetrated the Ugandan economy in general, and Lango in particular, did contribute to the persistent survival and reproduction of pre-capitalist, non-state regulated forms of peasant co-operative organizations (PCOs) in agricultural production within the context of the development of state-regulated forms of PCOs and how the interaction between the two resulted in contradictions that, over time, have seen the development of classes in Lango. The underlying assumption in the study has been that the character of the colonial economy that developed in Lango led to social differentiation in that society and to the transformation/subjugation of the then existing forms of PCOs that it found on the ground such that their autonomy have largely been compromised in the interests of capital; and that at the same time the character of the colonial and post-colonial state has had a direct bearing/impact on the trends of these forms of PCOs. The study utilizes the neo-Marxist theories of articulation and the theory of neo-colonial state which provides insights into the nature of transformation that takes place when a specific form of capital penetrates rural agricultural production. Using these theories, the study examined historically the nature and patterns of forms of peasant agricultural co-operative development during the colonial and post-colonial periods, focusing on Lango. It attempts to demonstrate that the introduction of capitalist mode of production resulted in neither the complete destruction of pre-capitalist PCOs nor their total integration into the market. It reveals that this continuing existence of pre-capitalist PCOs accounts for the considerable measure of control exercised by producers over the means of production and over the process of production and exchange, implying that further integration of the producers into the market is problematic and that the existing state control over the relations of exchange precarious. Withdrawal from state-controlled and regulated marketing co-operatives and reversal to production of non-traditional commodity crops within non-state regulated PCOs have become the most important strategies employed by cotton producers in their struggle against state exploitation in the market which has necessitated increasing state intervention in the production process so as to establish control over the process of production and thereby enlarge the marketable surplus.

207 Nyoni, Timothy Sigsmund

Income distributional effects of economic adjustment in Tanzania.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Social Science Research Report Series. 1996. no. 7, ii + 101p.

Examines the impact of the economic adjustment policies adopted in Tanzania on the performance of the economy and on the levels, structure and distribution of real per capita household incomes. The findings of the study show that, with more liberal economic and trade policies, there has been a general tendency for real per capita incomes and consumption to increase in the late 1980s. The analysis of household per capita incomes does not suggest an equitable distribution of income. The inequality ratio was 0.20 and 0.4 for rural and urban areas respectively during 1989/90 (with a ratio closer to 1 for an equitable distribution). There were, however, changes in the structure of household incomes, with a tendency for a shift away from subsistence into cash income generating activities. Subsistence incomes have been constituting a declining share of total household incomes with more of the incomes being derived from farm cash and own business activities. Results from an application of a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model of Tanzania indicate weak welfare gains from trade liberalization. This could be due to the choice of the base year, 1976, and low substitution elasticities between domestic and imported goods. However, tariff was not an important trade policy instrument and its effectiveness was dampened by the prevalence of non-tariff restrictions, tax evasions and exemptions. The analysis of the household survey data and relative prices, however, yielded better results than the CGE model.

208 Kilindo, A. L.

Monetary and fiscal actions: A test of their relative importance in economic stabilization in Tanzania.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Social Science Research Report Series. 1996. no. 8, i + 45p.

The study has assessed the potency of monetary and fiscal actions in economic stabilization, as measured by growth of output (GDP) with stable prices, in the Tanzanian economy, using both statistical and econometric procedures. It was found from statistical analysis that monetary and fiscal actions are closely related, resulting in an identification problem as to which of them is actually in operation. This has been seen to arise from the money supply process whereby claims by Government on the Central Bank play a major role. This again is a result of an underdeveloped financial system that forces the absence of open market operations and therefore reliance on banks as a source of filling the government budget deficit. In such circumstances, fiscal actions and monetary actions are out of the control of authorities as government expenditure has not grown proportional to tax revenues. Fiscal actions have therefore been among the destabilizing factors in the economy as far as inflationary pressures are concerned. For purposes of comparison, reduced form equations relating changes in selected monetary variables and fiscal variables were run to test the potency of both actions. Results indicate that both policies cause growth of nominal GDP, but that fiscal actions are superior to monetary actions, as hypothesized. These conclusions should, however, be taken with caution. This is because of the observation mentioned above, that fiscal actions in an economy with an underdeveloped money market would be destabilizing due to their impact on monetary growth, which brings about inflation. In this regard, reduced form models render themselves inadequate, calling for structural modeling of the monetary sector.

209 Samita, Zacharia Wanakacha

Christian crusades in Nairobi: An analysis of socio-religious factors underlying their upsurge.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Social Science Research Report Series. 1998. no. 9, iv + 68p.

The research examines socio-religious dynamics within, and implications of, the phenomenon of Christian crusades in Nairobi, Kenya. It argues that the phenomenon is an indicator of the crisis situation confronting the society in general and the efforts that are being mustered by crusaders to address the situation. The study brings to the fore the socio-religious role of crusaders in the urban context. Crusaders are seen as one of the Church's alternatives in responding to the perceived contemporary issues. A review of general works on Christian mission and literature specifically addressing crusades or their aspects in Kenya has been done. Related scholarly contributions which have already been made on the subject are discussed in the review and the gaps that the present study fills are shown. Research tools utilized comprise of library research, pilot survey and field research. The theoretical framework guiding the study is based on the sociological classics in religion, Emile Durkheim and Max Weber, who both emphasize the functionalist perspective of religion in society. The findings show that increased socio-economic problems in society cause a gap which crusades attempt to fill. Attendance in crusades is drawn from people of different ranks and walks of life in terms of their gender, age, socio-economic standing, educational level, and religious affiliation among others. However, women and the youth, more than any other group in society, as well as the generally middle and lower class feature more explicitly in crusades. This is partly because they are the most affected by socio-economic problems. The crucial role and the believed-in power and efficacy of the evangelist in crusades is also underlined in the study. Thus, many crusadees are drawn to crusades by a number of aspects that relate to the perceived popularity of the preacher-evangelist.

210 Suliman, Abdul Hameed Elias

The impact of structural adjustment programs on the health sector in the Sudan: A case of Khartoum State.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Social Science Research Report Series. 1999. no. 10, iv + 51p.

Assesses the impact of changes introduced in the context of the liberalization policies on the curative health services sector, specifically on health care facilities and personnel, as well as the extent to which the new system of financing health services has succeeded in achieving its goals. Examines the impact of these policies on the health seeking behaviour (utilisation of services) of the population and access to health services. Effectiveness of the newly introduced compensatory measures in the context of the new economic reforms and the extent to which they have managed to achieve their mitigating goals are also explored. The hypotheses that adoption of the policies led to an adverse impact on health care facilities and personnel and negatively affected the accessibility of health services to an increasing number of poor people, and that the compensatory measures that were introduced are impotent were tested with both primary data, generated using questionnaires with 145 in- and out-patients in Khartoum and Omdurman Teaching hospitals and interviews with key informants and medical staff, and secondary data obtained from statistical reports issued by the Federal Ministry of Health and the Departments of Statistics at Omdurman and Khartoum Teaching hospitals. The findings of the study are consistent with the stated hypotheses leading to the conclusion that the economic reforms implemented under the title of economic liberalization policies in 1992 have led to fundamental changes in the health sector, that health care facilities have been negatively affected by the shortage of finance as a result of the curtailment of government spending allocated to health services and the failure of the new financing mechanism to generate sufficient financial resources. The decline in real income of the majority of the population, resulting from the adoption of the economic reforms, has weakened their ability to pay for the costly bill of health services, which used to be free, leading to serious attrition from service in public health institutions. A significant proportion of health workers, particularly doctors, have either migrated outside the country or moved to private practice causing unfavourable competition with public health institutions. The compensatory measures introduced in parallel with the sectoral reforms to act as a safety net for the poor have failed to achieve their mitigating roles as their contribution has been very limited owing to the insufficiency of the resources allocated for this mechanism. The new cost-sharing system, based on cross subsidization (whereby better-off patients pay the specified fees so that subsidized services are provided to the worse-off), is in complete collapse because (i) the majority of the users of public hospitals are low income groups coming from remote areas and (ii) patients who are able to pay have opted to go to private health institutions, thus further depriving public health institutions of the money that could have been used to run themselves. The study concludes that the provision of adequate and accessible curative health services for the population is a very complex and difficult process, particularly under such deteriorating economic conditions, that the government should take its responsibilities towards ensuring health services for all segments of the population, that this objective could not be achieved under the present economic conditions and the prevailing health policies, and hence that there is a need for effective and powerful measures, based on sound studies of all possible means of financing health services, to guarantee a sustainable provision of adequate health services for all. Recommends an in-depth study of the factors that shape individuals' health seeking behaviour, which has been ignored in the design of former health policies, and a serious consideration of a health insurance system as one of the remedies for the problems afflicting the health sector.

211 Sahal, Ibrahim Mohamed G.

Crossing the poverty line: The destiny of Sudanese middle-class public sector employees.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Social Science Research Report Series. 1999. no. 11, iii + 43p.

Presents results of a study that examined the living conditions of salaried middle class employees in the urban public sector in the Greater Khartoum area, Sudan, in order to assess the extent of poverty in the area, to investigate the effect of this poverty on the class structure of the population, to evaluate the Government's policies towards the poor and also investigate how economic policy making could be given a social dimension, to review the relationship between the recent evolution of the economic structure in the country and the emerging class structure of the population, and to examine how middle-income households try to close the gap between their fixed income and the increasing cost of living and hence higher poverty-line index. Chapter one introduces the research problem, objectives of the study, the hypotheses that it postulates, sources of the data, and methods used for data collection and analysis. Chapter two reviews the literature, with emphasis on the definition and measurement of absolute and relativity poverty, and poverty-related concepts as well as the theoretical basis for, working definition and methods of estimating the poverty line for Sudan. Chapter three describes the data collected from field surveys and secondary sources and presents results of the analysis as to the poverty line estimate, existence and magnitude of poverty, and behaviour of the population. Chapter four presents a qualitative description of the coping mechanisms adopted by the middle class. These include group solidarity strategies such as increasing the number of income earners and external support mechanisms, income diversification strategies, disposal of possessions, readjustment strategies such as new forms of asset utilization and cutting back on consumption, and the one-day trade strategy. Chapter five presents the concluding remarks and observations.

212 Ibrahim, Abdel -Rahman Abbakar

The development of the livestock sector in the Sudan: A case study of public policy analysis.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Social Science Research Report Series. 1999. no. 12, vi + 97p.

Presents an overview of the nature and causes of the crisis of development in Africa as well as main features of the economic, political, and social symptoms of its manifestation in Sudan. The paper then reviews Sudan's experience in development planning, focusing on the Government's priorities regarding the agricultural sector as a whole and the livestock sector in particular. All the develpment plans that have been adopted by successive governments are characterized by an emphasis on the sectoral approach in planning, preference given to irrigated farming, total neglect or marginal importance given to the livestock sector, lack of full implementation, a marked degree of continuity despite the repeated changes in government as well as in development plans, incomplete disbursement of development budgets, and difficulties in tracing the complete implementation of projects that has been caused by frequent changes in government. The paper then discusses the importance of the livestock sector in the country's economy in relation to the size of herds, geographical distribution of herds in the different systems of livestock production, the contribution of the sector to food supply, to Gross Domestic Product, and to exports and foreign exchange earnings. Concludes with recommendations for future strategies and development options that would realize the full potential of the livestock sector, with emphasis on issues regarding the establishment and promotion of commercial farms; capability of the land resources to support livestock production; forage production and supply; social, economic and environmental problems associated with the utilization of natural rangelands for livestock production; and current land use practices as well as land tenure arrangements.

213 Misana, Solome B.

Deforestation in Tanzania: A development crisis? The experience of Kahama District.

OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). OSSREA Social Science Research Report Series. 1999. no. 13, 76p.

Presents results of a study on the principal processes underlying deforestation in Kahama district in Tanzania, which investigated the extent and main causes of deforestation (expansion of tobacco cultivation and curing, charcoal production and settlement) as well as the linkage between deforestation and the broader processes of social, economic and technological changes associated with a particular form of development centered on agricultural development. The study also analyzed the role played by government development (agricultural and economic) policies as well as policies and strategies pertaining to forestry management and utilization in the deforestation process, and examined the consequences of deforestation for the people living in and around forests and how they react to the problem, either individually or collectively.