Peer-reviewed Articles

012 Anyang'Nyong'o, Peter

Social science research and the problem of values.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1985. v. 1(1), p. 1-16.

Discusses the essence of values in social science research in relation to the question of the value of social science research itself, values in social sciences, values for the social sciences, the value of the social scientist, and the values imposed on the social scientist. Examines the value of Marxism as a social science.

013 Kidane, A. [Asmerom Kidane].

Sampling errors from socio-economic baseline survey in an Ethiopian rural setting.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1985. v. 1(1), p. 69-78.

Presents results of a study on the variability of standard errors and other related statistical measures, which can be encountered in any sample survey, with the aim of evaluating the degree of precision of the information that is collected from surveys. Based on data collected from a cluster sample survey of socio-economic variables in Lume Woreda, 75 kilometers south-east of Addis Ababa in Ethiopia, the paper assesses the pattern and magnitude of standard errors, deft values (ratio of the standard error of sampling method under usage to that of simple random sampling, useful for a better presentation of standard errors as it avoids their dependence on the units of measurement and hence accounts for sample design effects), and the degree of homogeneity (roh) of responses for 6 categories of qualitative and quantitative questions, viz., common agricultural practices and farming systems, common agricultural and other constraints, credit sources and degree of indebtedness, opinions with regard to issues that need improvement, decision making in farm management, and relations with extension agents.

014 Mujaju, Akiiki. B.

The recency and immediacy of political science: Some implications for research.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1985. v. 1(1), p. 37-51.

Presents the view that one of the qualities that have resulted in the declining fortunes, in official circles, of the discipline of political science and political science research was, and still is, the element of recency (in terms of time) and immediacy (in terms of socio-economic relevance) of the discipline itself and the extent to which this has implications for conducting research. Supports this assertion with a case study of attempts by the Government of the Uganda Peoples' Congress (UPC), led by Dr. Obote, to involve the UPC parliamentary constituency organizations in improving the lives of rural people through what was called "Parliamentary Constituency Rural Development Programme". This was a new departure that was premised on the assumption of rural development based on local choice but was a result of political calculation to popularize the Party and its Members of Parliament. After an explanation of the concepts of recency and immediacy as they apply to the discipline, the paper discusses what the programme was designed to achieve, how it was subverted from being a local choice to being an elite choice, and how regular development officers were bypassed and hence had no impact in selecting or citing projects, and finally how the noble ideals were systematically subordinated to the electoral interests of individuals. Discusses how research into this recent and relevant exercise became politically explosive as well, and how this relates to the main concerns of political science.

015 Ndagala, D. K.

Social science research in Africa: A review of methods and ethics.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1985. v. 1(1), p. 17-36.

The paper attempts to contribute to the discussion on the validity of social science research methods and the operationalization of the research findings. Critically reviews shortcomings of the research methods commonly used by social scientists in Africa, with emphasis on those related to the choice of research problems, data collection, termination of field work, and preparation and publication of final reports. Presents an illustration of a case study, whereby a 'new social science research methodology', in which the research not only involves and benefits the researchers but also the researched people (participatory research) and their respective countries while contributing to the scientific development of the science itself, has been applied in the study of continuity and change among the Hadzabe hunter-gatherers in Tanzania. The research was initiated to find out reasons for the reluctance of the Hadzabe to sedentarize and engage in agricultural production, even though they are sometimes employed as agricultural labourers. This was found out to be, by actively involving them in the research process, the advantages they saw for themselves in maintaining their traditional way of life as foragers. This conflicted with official efforts to sedentarize them and thereby make them comply with the villagization scheme. This met with failure, even with inducements. There had also been a lack of trust in researchers and an uncooperativeness in the research process. The findings of the study have been made widely known. Concludes with a summation of the major observations and general conclusions that have become apparent from this exercise, which has revealed the need for the revising the tools for social science investigations so as to make them flexible; to transform research from being an extractive exercise; to change its aim from solely understanding to emancipation; to change attitudes of social scientists; and to put more emphasis on participatory research.

016 Nindi, B. C.

Problems of social science research in developing societies: With examples from a survey of Zairean refugees in Tanzania.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1985. v. 1(1), p. 53-68.

Provides an example of the kind of difficulties faced in conducting an essentially practical piece of social survey research in a developing country. After discussing the logic of research and considerations to be taken into account in problem formulation, particularly distinguishing between the method of research work and the techniques of research, the paper describes the state of research and the reliability of data in the general field of refugee problems in Africa, and of Zairean refugees in Tanzania in particular, followed by a discussion of issues that arise in research design, in questionnaire construction and interviewing, in testing the research instruments, and in the actual execution of the field study. The major constraints that confronted the author were widespread suspicion among refugees and their valid fear as to the destination of the information collected from them. There were also the problems of suffering, poverty, diseases as well as uncertainty which might intervene in the process of data collection. The paper suggests that simple mathematical formulas and simple village surveys are useful techniques in data collection among refugees. Such material can be utilized to provide information concerning the general status and demographic characteristics of the population. Concludes by presenting some of the major findings of the survey, viz., categories by reason for leaving, involvement in political activity, willingness to be repatriated, and age and sex composition of the refugee population.

017 Browne, Robert. S.

The IMF conditionalities and the African crisis.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1985. v. 1(2), p. 19-30.

In an attempt to sketch out the role which the IMF has elected to play in Africa and to evaluate its performance, both from its own and an African perspective, the paper highlights the nature of Africa's current economic crisis, which have been largely responsible for bringing in the IMF as a major player, followed by general background information on the origin, structure, purpose, and history of the institution. It then reviews the experiences gained in implementing IMF-inspired adjustment programs in various African countries and critically examines whether the institution is an appropriate instrument for ministering to Africa's needs and if there might be better options that are available, including the World Bank. Concludes with a note on some of the paradoxes, contradictions and complexities which confront Africa in its quest for development in the current global context and sets forth a few suggestions for discussion.

018 Chole, E. [Eshetu Chole].

The African economic crisis.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1985. v. 1(2), p. 1-17.

Outlines major features of the various crises faced by African countries during the 1980's, viz., declining per capita output, food shortages and famine, high level of debt and increasing difficulties in debt servicing, as well as dependency on the world market and a balance of payment crisis. Presents the view that the crisis of underdevelopment is the root cause of all these crises and argues that it is within this context that each of the above crises should be examined and that an analysis of their respective links with this overriding crisis of underdevelopment be established in order to get to the roots of the problems.

019 Mandaza, Ibbo

Conflict in Southern Africa.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1985. v. 1(2), p. 53-72.

Reviews briefly the historical basis of imperialism in Southern Africa, showing how the sub-region has come to be defined against the background of European expansion that began in Africa in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and the subsequent era of imperialism from the nineteenth century onwards. Includes an analysis of the main elements of United States policy in the region in the last two decades, highlighting the modifications that have been necessitated by the intensification of armed struggles that have brought independence to Angola, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, and will inevitably do so in Namibia and South Africa. Critically examines whether the South African state can be considered as a sub-imperial power or not, taking into account the configuration of U.S.-South African relations on one hand and the role of the South African state in the destabilization of the Frontline Countries on the other hand, whose specific aim is to render the rear base of the national liberation movements weak as well as dependent on finance capital, and hence incapable of embarking on politics that would jeopardize the global economic and strategic interests of the U.S. and its NATO allies.

020 Mkandawire, T.

State policy responses to economic crisis in Africa.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1985. v. 1(2), p. 31-51.

Reviews briefly the various explanations put forward for the changes that have been made in economic and development policies in several African countries during the past two decades, viz., movement from a liberal capitalist order to an etatist-cum-nationalistic one; discovery of deficiencies in particular policies; instability of regimes; and the existence of different fractions within the ruling classes. The paper then develops an explanatory model for government policy changes in African countries, assumed to have a developmentalist and nationalist ruling class, in terms of their economies' dependence on foreign investment and foreign exchange earnings and the cyclical transition in the relative scarcity or availability of either or both of these two. Discusses the experiences of Zambia, Kenya and Tanzania in order to assess the illustrative and indicative potential of the model.

021 Nzongola-Ntalaja

The national question and the crisis of instability in Africa.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1985. v. 1(2), p. 73-101.

Examines the nature of the national question and its relationship to the crisis of instability in Africa, including a highlight of the conditions under which the national question arises as a critical issue in a country's politics and an identification of the lessons that the continent can draw from its recent history for resolving this issue. After a brief discussion of what constitutes the national question, the paper examines the problem historically by looking at a number of related issues such as the impact of colonialism, objective conditions for the rise of dissident nationalism in the post-colonial era, and relationship between the national question and class struggle. Reviews several cases where the national question has arisen, either as a result of colonial territories being denied their right to self-determination or when ethnic groups, nationalities or national minorities either seek to achieve regional autonomy within existing boundaries or wish to modify these boundaries so as to establish sovereign states, viz., irredentism of Somali nationalism; revanchism in Buganda; inter-ethnic conflict, ethnic nationalism and secession in Biafra, Nigeria, as well as South Kasai, Zaire; rise of oppressed minorities in Chad, Ethiopia and Sudan; and the struggle for liberation in colonial and former colonial territories such as South Africa, Namibia, Eritrea and Western Sahara.

022 Campbell, H.

Challenging the apartheid regime from below: Popular alliances and the state in South Africa.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1986. v. 2 (1), p. 93-128.

Analyses the essence and characteristics of the alliance against apartheid that exists in South Africa, with emphasis on the nature of the social forces that aspire towards leadership, links between organized and unorganized labour, level of urban and rural participation and how this affects its strategy and tactics, nature of the leading theoretical/political line in the alliance, question of whether any section in the alliance seeks ideological or political hegemony, and the short- and long-term objectives of the alliance. After a brief review of the racial and social components of apartheid, the paper reviews the history of self-mobilization and self-organization of workers (mass strikes in Durban) and students (opposition to educational components of apartheid in Soweto as well as persistent youth protests later on) that led to the formation of the alliance, attempts made by the state at 'constitutional reforms' while heightening the level of repression, and the subsequent formation of the United Democratic Front (UDF). Describes the relationship that exists between the UDF and grassroots organizations, the church, as well as labour unions. Discusses some of the negative and positive lessons that have been gained in the operations of the alliance.

023 Chege, M.

The state and labour in independent Kenya.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1986. v. 2 (1), p. 68-92.

Explores the social and economic characteristics of the working class in Kenya after independence and analyses its paramount socio-political concerns. After a critical overview of similarities and differences between the socio-political characteristics of the working class in Africa and elsewhere (viz., aversion to revolutionary political action, being a "labour aristocracy", not being a proletariat), the paper reviews the growth and change in sectoral distribution of the working class in the country, state policies towards labour, and the history of the labour movement's actions in collective bargaining as well as participation in strikes (including two case studies of workers' militant activities).

024 Clapham, C.

Recent books on African politics. Review article.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1986. v. 2 (1), p. 129-148.

Reviews major themes dealt with by 8 books, published between 1982 and 1985, that attempt to present an overview of developments in the political arena in Africa during the two and a half decades after independence, with emphasis on, political comparison of different states, political systems that have manifested themselves, and the current crisis facing the continent. Observes that, with respect to methodology in all of the books, comparative studies have never really found much favour among Africanists while systematic data for a good comparison has been inadequate, and that there has been only limited impact of Marxist or dependency approaches to the study of African politics. Three of the books that explicitly seek to compare rather than generalize base their comparison on the political leadership rather than on the structural characteristics (such as class, productive apparatus, etc.) of states. Two of these are about leaders, especially case studies of political leaders, as well as the limitations and possibilities of leadership, and typology of alternative leadership styles. The third examines whether these leaders sought to achieve their goals by force or through some mixture of accommodation and persuasion and also reviews their record in terms of economic growth as well as in fostering equality, autonomy, human dignity, participation, and state capacity. The rest of the books are all introductions and surveys that address such issues as colonialism, the struggle for independence, the optimism at the period of independence, international relations, regional organizations and cooperation, and relationships between African state structures and the societies and economies which they attempt to control. Concludes by critically assessing the contribution of these books to an understanding of the political forces at work in the continent.

025 Goulbourne, H.

The state, development and the need for participatory democracy in Africa.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1986. v. 2 (1), p. 1-25.

Highlights some of the issues regarding democratic institutions and citizenry participation in the res publica in relation to the debate over the future of Africa and its development. Maintains that, in the severe tension that always exists between democratic practice and political control, control has won over active participation in all independent African countries where identifiable political structures are evident, that states have moved rapidly in an interventionist direction in the post-colonial era, and that the view that citizens have rights separate and apart, independently of the state, and that the government derives its legitimacy from the people, are not ingrained into the social, ideological and political fabric of many societies, meaning that the first generation of post-colonial leaders had failed in developing democratic institutions and modes of conducting public affairs. Describes characteristics of the various types of regimes that have taken state power, with emphasis on military rule and the one-party system. Refutes arguments advanced to justify the construction of repressive systems. Discusses the consequences of the underdevelopment of social classes in inhibiting the development of politics and the state in the continent, with particular reference to the nature, behaviour and practices of the class that took power at independence, and the absence of independent political forms of expression for the working classes.

026 Mamdani, M.

The agrarian question and the democratic struggle (with special reference to Uganda).

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1986. v. 2 (1), p. 26-47.

Presents the view that central to the question of democracy in Uganda is the agrarian question and that a discussion of the issue must recognize that the peasant question lies at the heart of the question of democracy. Discusses contradictory perspectives on the democratic struggle in Uganda, with emphasis on major features and causes of the unequal and exploitative relations that exist in the peasant society; political characteristics of the bureaucratic bourgeoisie and the development of agrarian capitalism; post-colonial conditions of the relations between state power and the ruling classes and that between the ruling and popular classes which has been characterized by undemocratic coercive practices utilizing the institutions of local administration, local judiciary and District Land Committees; and the debates on the practice of democracy in the country after the fall of the Amin regime.

027 Wamba-dia-Wamba, E.

Experiences of struggles for democracy in Africa: The case of the People's Republic of Congo.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1986. v. 2 (1), p. 48-67.

Discusses the history of people's democratic struggle in Congo (Brazzaville) which, the author asserts, was characterized by a tragic role played by the radical intelligentsia which quickly joined the government of soldiers who came to power through putsch, in the belief that by manning critical status apparatuses with progressive individuals, the state can be led to perform progressive and democratic tasks whereas both democracy and socialist revolution can only come about by the participation of the masses in the political process of replacing the neo-colonial state by a popular democratic one. The lessons to be drawn are that an army that precipitates a coup and establishes a "people's government', may call in progressive intellectuals to provide it with manpower and legitimacy, which does not mean it is committed to democracy. This army-led regime may soon reveal its real class character by doing away with these intellectuals and governing in a way commensurate with the dominant exploitative interests it seeks to serve.

028 Banguire, Firimoon R.

Towards an appropriate policy framework for a "Magendo" economy.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1986. v. 2 (2), p. 77-107.

Defines the "magendo" economy as one where the majority of the working population cannot meet 20-25 percent of their basic needs with their formal wage incomes or where the basic needs income is at least 45 times the formal wage income and hence workers have to engage in magendo activities to bridge the yawning basic needs gap. Maintains that the magendo economy in Uganda has evolved out of persistent structural retrogression in the real sector (as evidenced by regressive tendencies in the production, aggregate demand and trade spheres), interacting with increasing distortions in the financial sector to generate the exploitation of the working population, and highlights the main characteristics of such an economy. Presents a policy framework for the structural transformation of such an economy, outlining appropriate measures under such headings as criteria for policy measures, choice of modes of state intervention and resource allocation mechanisms, rational utilization of natural and human resources, sectoral priorities, agricultural transformation strategy, endogenous industrialization strategy, basic needs infrastructure, and linkages with macroeconomic balance.

029 Campbell, H.

The IMF debate and the politics of demobilisation in Tanzania.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1986. v. 2 (2), p. 56-76.

Presents the view that in the well-publicized confrontation, which later turned into compromise, between Tanzania and the IMF, the Tanzanian state, which is essentially petty-bourgeois, had to demobilize the peasants and workers in order to come to terms with the dictates and conditionalities of the IMF. The paper argues that this has resulted in an increase of poverty and hardships, trade liberalizations leading to public and covert devaluation, a fall in real wages and living standards, the use of force or threats to use it in the alienation of the labour power of peasants, and finally the renunciation of the egalitarian principles of ujamaa.

030 Mujaju, Akiiki. B.

Regional integration and the Southern African crisis.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1986. v. 2 (2), p. 135-156.

Analyzes the intricate nexus between regional integration and the liberation struggle in Southern Africa. After examining, briefly, the liberation struggle in the continent, focusing on the contribution of African countries, both within the OAU and outside it, the paper outlines the factors that explain this contributions. It then discusses the current state of the liberation struggle, paying particular attention to the belligerence of the Republic of South Africa and its foreign backers as well as the threats they posed to its immediate neighbours and to the continent as a whole. Assesses the role of regional cooperation, both economic and political, as a credible counter-force to South African pretensions and terrorism.

031 Noormohamed, S. O.

Factors governing the evolution and success of housing policies in Kenya and Indonesia: A comparative perspective.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1986. v. 2 (2), p. 1-39.

Compares, for the period 1963 to 1986, the evolution of housing policies regarding slum and squatter improvement, provision of sites, services and core-housing, and construction of 'decent' two-room houses in Kenya and Indonesia, focusing on the extent to which such factors as clear policies and commitment, external pressures such as from the World Bank, nature of institutional set-up, finance, the phenomenon of subletting, popular participation, proper planning and demonstration effects have governed the evolution and success of these housing policies. Success of the programmes was measured by the extent to which equity or social justice and increasing the supply of housing (the two objectives of the Kenyan and Indonesian governments) were fulfilled. Subsequent to a discussion on various positions as to what constitutes equity, viz., utilitarian, Rawisian and Aristotelian, ILO, free-marketer, and Marxist, the paper describes the two alternative approaches that the two governments have undertaken, viz., slum improvement in Indonesia and squatter improvement in Kenya and the reasons for this; sites and services projects in Kenya and core-housing in Indonesia; and conventional two-room housing construction projects in Jakarta and Nairobi.

032 Rahmato, D. [Dessalegn Rahmato].

Food aid and food dependency in Ethiopia.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1986. v. 2 (2), p. 40-55.

Describes the extent of food insecurity in Ethiopia, classifying it as malnutrition, critical food shortage (but not widespread famine) and famine (mild or serious), including supporting data that indicates a decline of actual as well as projected estimates of per capita availability and consumption levels. Discusses the magnitude of food aid and food dependency (both dependency on food aid and on commercial food imports) in the country, noting the bleak forecasts which foresee an increase in dependency and a crisis in livelihoods. Analyzes the debate as to the role of food aid in the development process, outlining the need to separate regular and emergency food aid and the factors that have an important bearing on its effectiveness, viz., nature of the political environment in the recipient country, the political aspects of food aid, and the likelihood that it will lead to a dominant-subordinate relationship between donor and recipient.

033 Shrestha, Bijoy C.

Foreign aid: Issues, realities and policy alternatives.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1986. v. 2 (2), p. 108-133.

The paper reviews the literature on the role of foreign aid in the development process, outlining the various opposing opinions and results of empirical studies, viz., Chenery-Strout's model which integrates foreign finance as an additinal factor of production; Pearson Commission's report that strongly recommends increased aid until developing countries achieve self-sustaining growth; misgivings expressed by the delegates to the Columbian Conference on International Development as to the adequacy of the 1 percent of GNP aid target; Keith Griffin's contention that there is a reverse flow of resources to rich countries and hence a reduction in the amount of domestic resources devoted to investment due to resource inflows; errors in S.K. Singh's misinterpretatious analysis as to the effect of capital inflow on domestic savings which it found to be negative; results of several disaggregated macro-studies on the effect of foreign aid on the growth of savings, aid, foreign direst private investment, propensity to save out of net resource inflows, government transfer investment, consumption, tax collection effort and index. All of these emipircal studies show no counter-productive effect of foreign aid. It then lists several short- and long-term proposals regarding foreign aid contained in the Brandt Commission report, following which it presents a summary of the realities that exist in the flow of foreign aid from donors vis-a-vis the dismal plights of developing countries and despite the measures and suggestions recommended by UNCTAD IV to redress this state of affairs. Finally it proposes several policy alternatives, viz., greater mobilization of domestic resources; reduced reliance on foreign aid; maintaining as high a rate of growth as the economy can achieve and sustain; increased tax collection; incraesing the index of financial effort through an increase in monetization and the adoption of liberal attitudes by banks and other financial institutions towards development finance; reversing/eliminating the current urban bias in development; acceptance and implementation of an integrated programme of rural development; changing policies in accordance to the stage of growth of the economy; facing up to the reality that foreign aid will not be had in the amount desired by developing countries, no matter how many recommendations and suggestions are put forward; and hence increasing self-reliance.

034 Chambua, S. E.

A critical approach to development debates after the Arusha Declaration.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1987. v. 3 (1), p. 1-18.

Examines the nature of Tanzania's development since 1967 when, through the Arusha Declaration, the country committed itself to the policy of socialism and self-reliance, analyzing whether the expanding dynamic mode of production is socialism or peripheral capitalism. After a brief background data on the country's economy and its performance, the paper reviews the most important theories that offer explanations about the country's development and for the prevailing economic crisis, viz., bad policies coupled with poor planning and faulty implementation or conservatism of the peasantry and their ability to ignore state policies as causes of the crisis within the modernization school of thought; and the foreign aid thesis, the ruling class thesis or utopian socialism as the problems under the dependency/disengagement school of thought. Examines the nature of the state, its class character, and the nationalization measures in trying to answer whether Tanzania's development after the Arusha Declaration is capitalistic or socialist (or in transition to socialism), concluding that it is peripheral capitalism even though the struggle to build socialism and self-reliance continues to be supported by major policy documents but is contradicted in practice by the continued dependence on aid from the world capitalist system.

035 Hadjivayanis, Georgis G.

Perverse capitalism in agriculture: A study of Nyandira village.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1987. v. 3 (1), p. 75-110.

Reviews the history of the introduction of vegetable growing and its evolution in Nyandira village, Mgeta division, on the Uluguru mountains, in Tanzania. Describes the main features of the capitalist agriculture in the village, with emphasis on the differentiation of the peasantry leading to unequal access to labour, land and capital which resulted in the practice by land renting and purchase by rich peasants, specialization of rich peasants in vegetable growing and poor ones in food crops, keeping of one or two pigs by the poor for fattening and access to manure while the rich kept more pigs for both fattening and breeding, employment of wage labour by the rich while the poor depend on communal labour, the marketing of farm produce in the local market by the poor while the rich take theirs to urban markets. Notes the division of labour within the two general strata of rich and poor peasants, resulting in the 5 categories classes found in the area, viz., petty capitalists, and rich, upper middle, lower middle and poor peasants.

036 Lema, Anderson J.

Climate and food crises in Tanzania during the 20-year period of the Arusha Declaration.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1987. v. 3 (1), p. 20-37.

Based on the thesis that what happens after drought has struck is much more determined by the structure of the whole ecosystem than the drought itself, the paper shows that the food crises that Tanzania experienced could have been averted or the impact greatly minimized if measures such as irrigated farming, establishment of a national strategic grain reserve, strengthening of the Crop Monitoring and Early Warning Project and Agroclimatic Information System, reduction of post-harvest losses, integration of livestock into the food system, selection and breeding of crops for drought-prone environments, establishment of a semi-arid research centre, runoff agriculture (water harvesting), and appropriate agronomic and plant cultural practices had been institutionalized prior to 1967 or had effectively been implemented over the 20 years after the Arusha Declaration.

037 Shivji, Issa. G.

The roots of the agrarian crisis in Tanzania: A theoretical perspective.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1987. v. 3 (1), p. 111-134.

Presents the view that small peasant production in developing countries is the basis of imperialist exploitation, and that the imperialist relations of exploitation with the peasantry are characterized by non-equivalent exchange. Briefly analyses the controls and agencies of control, chief among whom is the state, with which capital is able to exert a kind of monopolistic control on the level of production as well as the market, with particular reference to Tanzania. Argues that the roots of agricultural backwardness and agrarian crisis must be traced to the super-exploitation of the peasantry by imperialism in alliance with the local compradorial classes. It further argues that any solution to the agrarian crisis must be evaluated in light of the imperialist relations of exploitation, and briefly touches on the character of IMF-posed type programmes and what they imply under this circumstances. Proposes a New Democratic Programme as a possible alternative.

038 Sumra, Suleiman.

Education and agriculture: A case study of Mswaki primary school in the Handeni District.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1987. v. 3 (1), p. 62-74.

After introducing the ideals contained in President Nyerere's policy paper entitled "Education for self-reliance", the paper examines the extent to which educational reforms, and particularly "self-reliance activities", which propose self-help projects, generally in agriculture, have achieved their aims of creating a socialist mode of production by improving related forces, providing pupils with modern agricultural knowledge and skills, and also inculcating the correct ideology for the socialist construction of society. Presents findings from a study of the practice of education in self reliance in Mswaki primary school, where the self-reliance activity is a school farm, which revealed that teachers did not participate in, but guided, farm activities; all decisions were taken by teachers; no new agricultural skills or techniques were learnt by the pupils; a similar ordinate/sub-ordinate relationship is seen in classroom work as on the farm; there is lack of books and shortage of exercise books; teachers engaged in activities other than teaching; there was dissatisfaction of both parents and pupils with the school as exemplified by a general apathy towards sending children to school and unwillingness of those who finish schooling to stay in the village and become peasants; and there was a feeling of superiority by teachers towards the locals. Concludes with several reasons for the failure of education for self reliance to lead to a fundamental transformation of the educational system.

039 Tenga, R. W.

Land law and the peasantry in Tanzania: A review of the post-Arusha period.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1987. v. 3 (1), p. 38-61.

Discusses, briefly, characteristics of land policy and law as well as the institutional forms of state intervention in peasant production through taxation, land laws and marketing arrangements in Tanzania in the colonial period, and argues that this forms the same basic structure of Tanzania's current land policy and law by demonstrating the similarities in the three characteristics exhibited by the country's land policy and law in relation to the peasantry in the post-independence period, viz., land tenure remains vague and undefined just as it was in the colonial era thereby allowing the state to exercise absolute control on land usage and development; institutional forms of state intervention with regard to land development are carried out through local government authorities, crop marketing boards and cooperatives, in a manner essentially similar to that in the colonial era; and the legal consolidation of the policy of "land to the tiller", which buttresses property relations that are far from socialist. Discusses problems regarding the acquisition of land, its ownership, and corporate personality that manifested themselves in the organization of ujamaa villages for the peasantry following the Arusha Declaration.

040 Aboagye, A. A.

Industrialization and its impacts on employment and incomes in Africa.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1987. v. 3 (2), p. 71-87.

Reviews the publications that resulted from studies by the ILO's Jobs and Skills Programme for Africa to empirically evaluate the impact of industrialization on employment and incomes in Burundi, Cote d'Ivoire, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Liberia, Madagascar, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo, focusing on a summary of the country experiences, with emphasis on countries in eastern and Southern Africa (including Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe), a critical appraisal of the issues raised in the studies, viz., national objectives for industrialization; industrialization policies and strategies adopted; reasons of why a particular type of industrialization took place; effects of industrial growth on employment generation and income distribution; factors influencing level of employment in industry (choice of technology and reasons for selecting particular technologies); constraints and problems of industrial growth (managerial, shortage of skilled labour, presence of excess capacity, raw materials, exports, local markets, etc.); as well as some questions arising out the studies and suggestions for future research.

041 Ali, A. A. G.

The economic report on Africa: A note.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1987. v. 3 (2), p. 88-94.

Highlights six statements, contained in the "Economic report on Africa 1987", jointly released by the African Development Bank and the UN Economic Commission for Africa, which the author thinks are irresponsible, technically faulty or both, and thus have serious implications for Africa's development efforts. The statements, in summary, dealt with (i) recognition of the role played by policy and institutional inadequacies in the current difficulties and the adoption of economic adjustment programmes by African governments, (ii) attributing the growth in agricultural output to policy changes only, (iii) calls for implementing World Banks policies, (iv) response to the insistence of donors to tie new loans to conditions, (v) the assertion that correct reform policies have created problems in Zambia, and (vi) the assertion that currency adjustments are an accepted, rather than imposed, tools of governments in their adjustment programmes.

042 Chole, E. [Eshetu Chole].

Constraints to industrial development in Ethiopia.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1987. v. 3 (2), p. 1-24.

After a review of the theoretical concepts and historical evolution of industrial development, with emphasis on the pre-conditions, the paper summarizes the genesis of Ethiopian industry and its role in the economy. It then outlines the major obstacles in the way of industrial development in the country, classifying them as structural, policy related and technical. Poor performance of the economy, meaning a small domestic market and little surplus for investment, as well as no private foreign investment, dependence on foreign loans and assistance, a deficit in the balance of trade, and a low and declining savings rate are identified as structural constraints leading to limited capacity for surplus mobilization, one of the prerequisites for industrial development. The policy of import substitution on the basis of protection, both prior to 1974 and later, and tariff, exchange rate and interest rate policy measures used to implement it as well as the state policy, after 1974, regarding the roles of private and public investment and the small amount of work done in promoting small scale industries are identified as policy constraints. Dependence on foreign technology with no evidence of an independent technological development, capital-intensive production techniques, and very weak linkages with other sectors of the economy, both for capital goods and raw materials, are identified as technical constraints.

043 Coughling, Peter; Mwau, Geoffrey; Begumisa, Gregory

Tied-aid, industrial dependence and new tactics for negotiations: Observations from Kenya.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1987. v. 3 (2), p. 41-61.

Reviews, selectively, the literature on the impact of tied aid on the economic structures of recipient countries. Examines how the Government of Kenya negotiates for aid, with emphasis on policy towards and experience in accepting tied aid. Presents four case studies that illustrate how aid-tying has resulted in a high cost as well as inappropriately designed equipment, viz., Nzoia Sugar Factory as well as the import of hand pumps, steel, electrical cables and conduits, and water pipes, all of which could have been locally produced, by various aid projects. Proposes ways which can improve Kenya's negotiating ability in linking aid to Kenya's industrialization by increasing local content in aid projects. Advocates new negotiating tactics - persuading the donor to permit the recipient country to divert project aid funds to purchase different products, perhaps not related to the project (triangularization of credit), from the donor country so as to obtain project items at least cost from the world market and with the highest level of local content - that might be applicable for Kenya and other developing countries.

044 Johnson, R. Larry

The strategic renewal of East African public enterprises.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1987. v. 3 (2), p. 25-40.

Discusses the implications of applying a participative strategic planning process in the renewal of public enterprises in East Africa. Highlights the problems, issues and key success factors in public enterprise planning, with emphasis on the importance of an environment of communication and mutual understanding; need to understand the interests and possible reactions of all participants; administering the planning process without encroaching upon others' activities; need for boundary definition and stability of objectives at both the national and enterprise level; viewing the environments in an opportunistic rather than stonewalling manner; adopting a functional level strategy formulation and implementation approach; adopting a planning style that integrates analysis, innovativeness and knowledge of the environment in which the firm operates; and development and implementation of working documents and guidelines. Describes a learning-by-doing or participative model building approach, identified as being critical to the success of strategic planning, which consists of convincing employees the need for change; establishing new patterns of behaviour; and finally institutionalizing a process of organizational design, including performance targets and remuneration systems, to produce a positive feedback loop as regards the behaviour. Describes a modified critical success factors approach that can be applied for a more specific planning control process in public enterprises, listing 9 steps that it incorporates. Outlines factors that have a bearing in the formulating and implementation of successful renewal plans.

045 Kimuyu, P. K.

The disintegration of the international oil industry and after: Implications for Kenya.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1987. v. 3 (2), p. 62-70.

Highlights the main characteristics of the integrated structure of the international petroleum industry (IOI) prior to 1970 as well as the changes that took place after that, notably, the appearance of new producers, change in control of production by nationalization and/or participation, marketing of crude oil by governments after 1978/79, competitiveness of the crude oil market, reduction of international operations by IOIs and their focus on selected markets, and the two increases in the price of crude oil. Predicts that the creation of excess refining capacity worldwide, a consequence of the above changes, will create uncertainty for small-market based refineries such as that of Kenya, as well as the withdrawal of the incentives that used to be given by IOI to retail station operators, withdrawal of some IOI from operations in Kenya, and a slowdown in exploration for petroleum.

046 Kamuzora, C. L.

Critical issues in population-development interrelationships and policy in sub-Saharan Africa.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1988. v. 4 (1), p. 1-15.

After briefly reviewing the debate on the effect of population growth on development, the paper asserts that, in the case of Tanzania, population growth has had no causal effects on development up to now, and that the converse holds true as components of population growth are influenced by socio-economic factors that depend on the stage of development. Outlines conditions under which population growth can affect development, viz., environmental degradation; the state's ability to cope with the provision of services; maternal and child health hazards; and the skewed age structure of the population. Argues that these have not manifested themselves in such a way as to account for the under-development of countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Discusses issues related to the control of population growth by reducing fertility, with emphasis on socio-economic determinants of fertility supply and demand in Africa as well as policies and measures that need to be addressed to bring about this desired condition.

047 Kesteren, J. van

Female workers in Addis Ababa.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1988. v. 4 (1), p. 17-31.

After briefly reviewing issues related to the participation of females in the labour force and problems encountered in collecting such type of data, the paper presents preliminary results from a survey of 794 women living in an area close to Mercato, the largest market in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, as to age, marital status, educational level, ethnicity, participation in the labour force (prior to and/or after marriage), kind of work (in institutions or self-employed), income levels, and reasons for not working, as well as a subsequent visit to 6 of them for an in-depth discussion about marriage, fertility, family planning and work. Includes an analysis of the co-relation between working status with age, marital status, and ethnicity.

048 Kidane, A.; Haile, A. [Asmerom Kidane; Azbaha Haile].

Determinants and consequences of marital instability in northwest Ethiopia.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1988. v. 4 (1), p. 57-68.

Presents results of a study on the extent of, causes for as well as consequences of marital instability (defined as more than one marriage by a woman) in Gondar administrative region, northwest Ethiopia. Data on proportion of women married once or more, in both urban and rural areas, as well as an analysis of the relations between marital instability on one hand and a woman's educational level, actual and desirable age at marriage, spouse selection (choice by self or arranged by parents), and adherence to religious and traditional beliefs, on the other are given. Effects of marital instability were found to be reduced fertility and higher infant and child mortality.

049 Mlay, Wilfred.

African migration decision-making process.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1988. v. 4 (1), p. 69-81.

Highlights factors that influence the decision making process in whether to migrate or not and where in Africa. After reviewing the approaches that have been pursued in an analysis of the structural processes that affect the decision to migrate, taken at either the household or individual level, and the conclusions that have been arrived at after field studies, the paper discusses labour migration (both internal and international) in relation to socio-economic changes that have taken place in sub-Saharan Africa; local social institutions, operating at the household and village (community) level, that influence the decision to migrate; conditions and institutional mechanisms influencing a household's decision to migrate, in part or as a whole; and the influence of remittances in the decision to migrate.

050 Ntozi, James P. M.; Kabera, John

Marriage patterns in Ankole, south-western Uganda.

Eastern Africa Social Science Research Review. 1988. v. 4 (1), p. 33-55.

Utilizes data from four demographic surveys to outline marriage patterns and systems, in relation to fertility, among the Banyankole, cultivators and pastoralists who inhabit Ankole, in Uganda. Examines the relationship between the high fertility rates, found in earlier and present surveys, and customs such as age at first marriage, proportion of married women, reasons for marriage dissolution, remarriage practices, as well as relative proportion of monogamous and polygynous marriage types and the sexual rights of a man to his brother's wife.