325 Prah, Kwesi Kwaa
Aid, dependency and civil war in the Southern Sudan.
In The crisis of development strategies in Eastern Africa, E. Chole, W. Mlay, W. Oyugi, (eds.), p. 86-107. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1990.
2. OSSREA Congress: Critical Analysis of Development Policies in Eastern Africa, Eldoret (Kenya), 28-31 July 1986.
Discusses the transformation in outlook towards development aid that has occurred in the perception of both donors and recipients, arguing that the present situation in Africa is characterized by neo-colonialism and increased rather than less dependency. Presents the experience of Southern Sudan where numerous multi-lateral, bilateral and voluntary aid agencies have started operations following the end of the First Civil War in the country. These agencies have been found to be staffed by expatriates, to provide up to 90 percent (1981/82) of the aid funds in the South, to practice the amigo system in personnel recruitment, to operate under previleged conditions offered by the government, to offer luxuriant conditions of service to their staff, and to maintain the "spreading idea" approach to development. The result has been limited, mainly infrastructural, development gains with little possibility of these development activities becoming self-sustaining and self-reliant while only a minor portion of development funds have been sunk into the region. Describes the social crisis that developed in the region in the latter years of the 1970s, which has led to armed insurgency, to increased difficulties for the operations of aid agencies, and finally to the resumption of another civil war.
326 Rahmato, D. [Dessalegn Rahmato].
Food aid and food dependency in Ethiopia.
In The crisis of development strategies in Eastern Africa, E. Chole, W. Mlay, W. Oyugi, (eds.), p. 54-67. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1990.
2. OSSREA Congress: Critical Analysis of Development Policies in Eastern Africa, Eldoret (Kenya), 28-31 July 1986.
Describes the extent of food insecurity in Ethiopia, classifying it as malnutrition, critical food shortage (but not widespread famine) and famine (mild or serious), including supporting data that indicates a decline of actual as well as projected estimates of per capita availability and consumption levels. Discusses the magnitude of food aid and food dependency (both dependency on food aid and on commercial food imports) in the country, noting the bleak forecasts which foresee an increase in dependency and a crisis in livelihoods. Analyzes the debate as to the role of food aid in the development process, outlining the need to separate regular and emergency food aid and the factors that have an important bearing on its effectiveness, viz., nature of the political environment in the recipient country, the political aspects of food aid, and the likelihood that it will lead to a dominant-subordinate relationship between donor and recipient.
327 Sharma, Keshav
Management of public enterprises: Some aspects of training and development of public enterprise personnel in Botswana.
In The crisis of development strategies in Eastern Africa, E. Chole, W. Mlay, W. Oyugi, (eds.), p. 193-217. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1990.
2. OSSREA Congress: Critical Analysis of Development Policies in Eastern Africa, Eldoret (Kenya), 28-31 July 1986.
Discusses one of the most important personnel problems of public enterprises, viz., the recruitment and training of managers possessing the appropriate combinations of talents and skills to run the enterprise efficiently. Highlights the difficulties associated with attracting such managers from the Civil Service or from the private sector, as well as the haphazard nature of the arrangements that have been utilized to fill senior management positions up to now. Presents the experience of Botswana in management development and training, where the situation has been compounded by a shortage of qualified manpower, persistent calls for indigenization, as well as inadequate manpower resources planning and training facilities.
328 Sifuna, Daniel N.
Some aspects of educational development in Kenya since independence: An appraisal.
In The crisis of development strategies in Eastern Africa, E. Chole, W. Mlay, W. Oyugi, (eds.), p. 261-285. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1990.
2. OSSREA Congress. Critical Analysis of Development Policies in Eastern Africa, Eldoret (Kenya), 28-31 July 1986.
Presents an overview of the expansion of tertiary, secondary and higher education, curriculum reform, and the universalization of primary education in Kenya to illustrate the general pattern of educational development in the country. Discusses major components as well as achievements of the government's policy of education for manpower development, the basis for and measures taken in reforming the curriculum, as well as the rationale for, enactment of and consequences of the universalization of primary education.
329 Abdel-Ati, H A.
The damming of the River Atbara and its downstream impact.
In African river basins and dryland crises, M. B. K. Darkoh, (ed.), p. 21-43. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia); Uppsala Univ. (Sweden). Department of Human and Physical Geography. Research Programme on Environment and International Security. 1992.
Describes the major ecological changes that have occurred, over a period of three decades, in the area downstream of the dam built on River Atbara at Khasm-el-Girba, Sudan, as well as the social and economic implications of these changes, viz., severe reduction in the amount of water passing downstream and alterations in its timing, speed and composition; increased erosion of the river channel; reduction in soil fertility; increased deforestation due to the stoppage of wood drifting from upstream; overgrazing and pasture degradation; adverse effects on fish; as well as changes in tenure systems, agricultural production systems, output and incomes as a consequence of decreases in plot sizes; increased renting of land; changes in types of cultivated crops and cropping systems; increase in livestock numbers coupled with a shift from big to small stock; changes in type of occupations pursued by the inhabitants; decline in income level coupled with increased inequality in income distribution; increased unemployment and underemployment; and increased resort to outmigration.
330 Darkoh, Michael B. Kwesi
Introduction: African river basins at risk.
In African river basins and dryland crises, M. B. K. Darkoh, (ed.), p. 1-12. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia); Uppsala Univ. (Sweden). Department of Human and Physical Geography. Research Programme on Environment and International Security. 1992.
Introductory chapter that reviews the main issues pertaining to the crises seen in arid and semi-arid lands in Africa as well as its river basins, that highlights the main objectives of the workshop and the major themes dealt by the papers in this proceedings, and finally summarizes subsequent chapters.
331 Darkoh, Michael B. Kwesi
Irrigation and development in Kenya's arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL).
In African river basins and dryland crises, M. B. K. Darkoh, (ed.),. p. 79-95. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia); Uppsala Univ. (Sweden). Department of Human and Physical Geography. Research Programme on Environment and International Security. 1992.
Reviews the development history of irrigation schemes and current development efforts in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) of Kenya, taking Turkana district as a case study, in order to assess the ability of irrigation schemes to offer viable alternative rural livelihood systems, to provide a sustainable and decent living for nomadic pastoralists, to provide cost-effective methods of crop production, to alleviate problems resulting from drought and famine, to solve the problems of failed pastoralists, and to enhance environmental sustainability. The results reveal that, apart from minor achievements, these schemes have been successive failures, do not promote a viable rural livelihood or a sustainable environment, are characterized by extremely high development and maintenance costs as well as high indirect costs. The performance of small scale irrigation systems, as an alternative to nomadic pastoralism for those made destitute by drought and famine, has been disappointing whereas the upgrading of indigenous irrigation systems has been more positive. Proposes the rehabilitation of existing small-scale irrigation projects and the promotion of water harvesting as suitable strategies for development in ASAL areas.
332 El-Dishouni, S. A.
Agricultural development issues in the Northern Region of the Sudan: Co-operatives and private smallholders.
In African river basins and dryland crises, M. B. K. Darkoh, (ed.), p. 113-119. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia); Uppsala Univ. (Sweden). Department of Human and Physical Geography. Research Programme on Environment and International Security. 1992.
Describes some of the current socio-economic crises confronting small scale and cooperative irrigated farms in the northern region of Sudan, viz., shortage of agricultural labour and mechanization which has had adverse effects on production; shortage of agricultural inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides which has led to inflated prices during acquisition and/or damage to crops; various problems associated with pump irrigation, either from wells or the river; high loss of irrigation water; and the under-utilization of the land and/or water resources that the region has.
333 Johansson, Stig
Irrigation and development in the Tana River basin.
In African river basins and dryland crises, M. B. K. Darkoh, (ed.), p. 97-112. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia); Uppsala Univ. (Sweden). Department of Human and Physical Geography. Research Programme on Environment and International Security. 1992.
Reviews the history of development in the Tana River basin, taking the Bura Irrigation Settlement Scheme as a case study, in order to examine the environmental and social consequences of river basin development. The results reveal a high degree of imbalance between the size of the population vis-a-vis that of the forest resources, which has resulted in increased deforestation of the floodplain forest and bushland; resource tenure conflicts, arising from the gazettement of 70000 ha. of formerly grazing land for the irrigation scheme, which is likely to lead to increased struggle over usufruct rights and tenure of grazing lands as well conflicts between pastoralists and scheme farmers; increased sedentarization of pastoralists; increased deforestation; and increased dependency of farmers on the Scheme.
334 Kloos, Helmut; Kello, Abdulhamid Bedri; Addus, Abdulaziz [Abdulhamid Bedri Kello; Abdulaziz Addus].
The health impact of the 1984/85 Ethiopian resettlement programme: Three case studies.
In African river basins and dryland crises, M. B. K. Darkoh, (ed.), p. 147-165. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia); Uppsala Univ. (Sweden). Department of Human and Physical Geography. Research Programme on Environment and International Security. 1992.
Reviews health hazards and the occurrence, public health implications, and prospects for control of several infectious (malaria, onchocerciasis, trypanosomiasis, schistosomiasis and intestinal parasitism) and non-infectious (podoconiosis, fluorosis, malnutrition and mental stress) diseases affecting settlers and the indigenous population in Kishe, Didessa and Gera settlement schemes, Illubabor administrative region, Ethiopia.
335 Kolawole, Are
The impact of drought on Lake Chad and its influence upon the South Chad Irrigation Project, Nigeria.
In African river basins and dryland crises, M. B. K. Darkoh, (ed.), p. 121-132. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia); Uppsala Univ. (Sweden). Department of Human and Physical Geography. Research Programme on Environment and International Security. 1992.
Describes the consequences of the 1979-85 Sudano-Sahelian drought on the level of water and hence size of the area covered by Lake Chad. Discusses the effect that this extensive departure from the normal has had on the performance of the South Chad Irrigation Project, located in North-eastern Nigeria, with particular reference to shortage and lack of water at the intake channel and hence for the project which has resulted in a reduction of the area irrigated, changes in the types of crops grown, decreased yields, increased crop losses, heightened the vulnerability of the inhabitants to hunger, increased unemployment, and increased outmigration.
336 Lako, George Tombe
The Jonglei Canal Scheme as a socio-economic factor in the civil war in the Sudan.
In African river basins and dryland crises, M. B. K. Darkoh, (ed.), p. 45-57. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia); Uppsala Univ. (Sweden). Department of Human and Physical Geography. Research Programme on Environment and International Security. 1992.
After an overview of the conflicting views held by "developmentalists" and "environmentalists" regarding the Jonglei Canal Project in Sudan, the paper describes the Sudd Region where the Canal is to be dug, discusses the rationale behind the construction of the Canal as well as the economic and political reasons behind the strong support of both the Egyptian and Sudanese governments for the project, and outlines the position of the population in southern Sudan regarding the project. These can be summarized as a problem of perception as to the actual beneficiaries from the project; problems associated with the development of agriculture and animal husbandry in the area; doubts as to the commitment of either or both governments to finance development projects other than the Canal; the possible diversion of funds from other projects which would exacerbate the already unequal level of development in the three southern provinces; and doubts as to the gains to be made from the trickle-down effect of the project, as Northerners would most probably be the one to benefit first.
337 Melasuo, Tuomo; Worku, A. [Amare Worku].
The Gerado River basin: An example of small river management possibilities in Ethiopia.
In African river basins and dryland crises, M. B. K. Darkoh, (ed.), p. 133-146. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia); Uppsala Univ. (Sweden). Department of Human and Physical Geography. Research Programme on Environment and International Security. 1992.
Describes the Gerado river basin, located in Dessie Zuria awraja, Wollo province, Ethiopia, in terms of its geography, settlement patterns, tenure before the Land Reform Proclamation, and agricultural economy. Discusses how modern economic and other social, cultural and political infrastructure such as producer and service cooperatives, irrigation, villagization, extension demonstration centres, a school and others have been built-up or developed as part of the resettlement programme. Examines the differences, similarities and interactions that exist between the river basin and the adjacent highlands, with emphasis on the ecological pressures created by the resettlement programme and the increasing economic differences that are being seen between the inhabitants of the two zones.
338 Mohamed-Salih, M. A.
African dryland crisis and the river basins: An overview.
In African river basins and dryland crises, M. B. K. Darkoh, (ed.), p. 13-20. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia); Uppsala Univ. (Sweden). Department of Human and Physical Geography. Research Programme on Environment and International Security. 1992.
Presents the views that African drylands and river basins represent a complementary ecosystem that is highly responsive to natural and man-made influences; that the relationship between human activities, settlements and management and utilization of natural resources cannot be simply reduced to a question of rationality or a lack of it; that river basin development projects are, in general, implemented without due consideration to their impacts on drylands and vice versa; and that there is a lack of due appreciation of indigenous knowledge in dealing with the crisis in drylands. The paper then reviews the nature, causes and ecological consequences of the crisis that has hit drylands in Africa and critically examines the possibility of and difficulties associated with the utilization of river basins as resettlement schemes for the population that has been impoverished and drought-stricken due to the crisis in the drylands.
339 Tveldt, Terje
Non-implemented plans as a barrier to development: The case of the Jonglei Scheme in the Southern Sudan.
In African river basins and dryland crises, M. B. K. Darkoh, (ed.), p. 59-78. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia); Uppsala Univ. (Sweden). Department of Human and Physical Geography. Research Programme on Environment and International Security. 1992.
Outlines some of the socio-economic consequences that have resulted from the non-implementation of the Jonglei Canal Scheme. After an overview of the hydrology of the Nile in general and of the upper Nile region in particular in relation to the supply of a regular flow of water downstream, the paper reviews the historical evolution of the perception that there is a need for a development project that would reduce the amount of water lost by evaporation in the Sudd Region in order to increase what reaches downstream, as well as the negative consequences that this pre-occupation of successive national and regional governments, starting from the colonial period, for such a project has had on other development activities in the Southern region.
340 Abbas, Babiker
A synopsis of research on pastoralism in Eastern Sudan with emphasis on camel husbandry and ecology.
In Dryland husbandry in the Sudan. Workshop report, p. 46-56. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). Dryland Husbandry Project; Khartoum Univ. (Sudan). Institute of Environmental Studies; Linkoping Univ. (Sweden). Research Programme on Environmental Policy and Society. OSSREA DHP Publications Series. 1996. no. 1.
National Workshop on Dryland Husbandry in the Sudan, Khartoum (Sudan), 29-30 Nov 1995.
Presents a summary of the findings from the Camel Research Project which investigated the camels' habitat and rearing conditions in the Sudan, with emphasis on herding strategies of pastoralists, herd nutrition and management, a continuous survey of camel health and productivity. Discusses briefly the positive outcomes of the Research Project as well as areas that require further research and development activities.
341 Ali, Ali Darag; Yousif, El-Sadig.
The savannah rangeland of the Sudan.
In Dryland husbandry in the Sudan. Workshop report, p. 24-45. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). Dryland Husbandry Project; Khartoum Univ. (Sudan). Institute of Environmental Studies; Linkoping Univ. (Sweden). Research Programme on Environmental Policy and Society. OSSREA DHP Publications Series. 1996. no. 1.
National Workshop on Dryland Husbandry in the Sudan, Khartoum (Sudan), 29-30 Nov 1995.
Discusses the ecology, grazing capacity, and current land use to be found in Sudan's rangelands. Describes past and current range development and research activities in the country, with emphasis on range vegetation survey and mapping; assessment of changes in vegetation composition and productivity; rangeland conservation, rehabilitation and improvement programmes, and seed treatment for rangeland revegetation.
342 Baasher, Mustafa M.
Dryland husbandry in Sudan with emphasis on the semi-desert zone.
In Dryland husbandry in the Sudan. Workshop report, p. 8-23. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). Dryland Husbandry Project ; Khartoum Univ. (Sudan). Institute of Environmental Studies; Linkoping Univ. (Sweden). Research Programme on Environmental Policy and Society. OSSREA DHP Publications Series. 1996. no. 1.
National Workshop on Dryland Husbandry in the Sudan, Khartoum (Sudan), 29-30 Nov 1995.
After a brief review of the need for a precise definition of the semi-desert zone and for updating the vegetation map of the Sudan, the paper lists the areas where information about Sudan's dryland potential and the physical environment is lacking or needs completion and suggests various actions to correct this. Describes studies and development interventions that have been made up to now in Northern Kordofan, highlighting topics that need further research, measures to effectively protect grazing reserves and rangelands, the debate regarding incresing water supply and environmental degradation around watering points. Discusses the unique environment of the Red Sea Hills area, development interventions and environmental degradation that have happened there, and proposals for a rangeland rehabilitation project for the area.
343 Mohamed, Yagoub Abdalla; Fadlalla, Babiker; Abdalla, Alawyia; Abdel Rahman, Mohamed El-Amin
Indications of recovery in biomass productivity and soil organic matter of Sudan's Sahel region: A case study of Northern Kordofan.
In Dryland husbandry in the Sudan. Workshop report, p. 57-77. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). Dryland Husbandry Project; Khartoum Univ. (Sudan). Institute of Environmental Studies; Linkoping Univ. (Sweden). Research Programme on Environmental Policy and Society. OSSREA DHP Publications Series. 1996. no. 1.
National Workshop on Dryland Husbandry in the Sudan, Khartoum (Sudan), 29-30 Nov 1995.
The region of North Kordofan was taken as a case study area representative of the vulnerable Sahelian zone in the Sudan. The objectives of the study were to assess the biomass resources and soil potential of the region as well as investigate the soil's capability to build up a rich carbon sink following the good rainy season of 1994. The findings concluded that land degradation and ecological imbalance associated with the combined adverse effects of years of below average rainfall and mismanagement may be favourably reversed if rational management practices are applied in accordance with rainfall patterns. The study revealed major trends of recovery both in biomass productivity and soil organic content.
344 Abdel-Ati, Hassen A.
External pressures on indigenous resource management systems: A case from the Red Sea area, Eastern Sudan.
In Managing scarcity: Human adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, A. G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.), p. 50-75. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 Aug 1995.
Presents findings from the Red Sea Area Research Programme in eastern Sudan on the social changes and adaptation mechanisms that have evolved among the Beja nomadic communities as a result of the drought and famine in the 1980s, with particular reference to the influence of external factors such as urbanization, system of local administration that is controlled by the center from Khartoum, establishment of two agricultural development schemes, imposition of local politics by the central government, and intervention by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in the form of drought relief and/or recovery and development programmes, on the indigenous system of resource use and management and how these processes have reflected on or have been reflected upon by the power shifts that have occurred both within the local setting and within the wider context of the country. Argues that these external factors, rather than the much stressed severity of the drought or the weakening of the inherent resilience of the system, have shattered the agro-pastoral system.
345 Ahmed, Abdel Ghaffar M.; Abdel-Ati, Hassan A.
Introduction.
In Managing scarcity: Hhuman adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, A. G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.), p. 1-8. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 August 1995.
Outlines briefly some of the problems that presently confront pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in the arid and semi-arid areas of East Africa, viz., curtailment of movements as a consequence of development projects and other governmental or other external interventions, constriction and degradation of the pastoral habitat that has been accompanied by loss of other economic activities as supplementary sources of income, imposed sedentarization, and recurrent droughts. The paper then summarizes the issues that were discussed, the questions that were raised and answered, the major themes of the presented papers, as well as the conclusions that have been arrived at in the course of the workshop.
346 Babiker, Mustafa
Management of aridity: Water conservation and procurement in Dar Hamar, western Sudan.
In Managing scarcity: Human adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, A. G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.),p. 107-126. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 August 1995.
Presents the view that traditional cultivators and pastoralists have developed indigenous methods of natural resource conservation and management suited to their social systems, ecological conditions and technical abilities. Supports this assertion with an empirical evidence from the case of the indigenous techniques of water harvesting being used in Dar Hamar, West Kordofan State, Sudan whose main features include the dispersion of farming units with scattered plots at different directions from the settlement, dry planting, mixed cropping, utilization of baobab trees as water storage places and dry season source of water supply, collection of run-off in surface ponds and lakes, digging of shallow and deep wells, cultivation of water melons, transport of water from permanent sources when other supplies are exhausted, and transhumance of the whole village or poorer sections of it when there is an absolute lack of water.
347 Blystad, Astrid
"Do give us children": The problem of fertility among the pastoral Barbayiig of Tanzania.
In Managing scarcity: Human adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, A. G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.), p. 285-317. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 August 1995.
Discusses female procreation in general and abortion and infant mortality in particular among the pastoral Barbayiig of northern Tanzania. After briefly reviewing the historical and political developments that have taken place in the past 25 years at both the national and local level, and which were characterized by forced settlement, collective punishments, encroachment by agriculturalists into land formerly dominated by the Barbayiig, alienation of more than 100000 acres of fertile grazing land by the Tanzania Canada Wheat Project which resulted in tragic consequences, antagonistic relations of the Barbayiig with their neighbours as well as the negative cultural stereotype attached to the group, the paper describes the cultural concepts and practices that relate to the reproduction process and thus influence a child's survival chance in the pastoral community, with emphasis on the elaborate concern attached to and the social consequences of a pregnancy that ends in a miscarriage or the death of an infant.
348 Egeimi, Omer Abdalla
From adaptation to marginalization: The political ecology of subsistence crisis among the Hadendawa pastoralists of Sudan.
In Managing scarcity: human adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, A. G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.), p. 30-49. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 August 1995.
Presents results of a study on the adaptation of the Hadendawa, pastoralists who inhabit the Red Sea Hills area in Eastern Sudan and who have been faced by protracted crises, to food shortages and the meeting of subsistence needs and how this adaptation operates in relation to short-term climatic changes, particularly drought. The existing food production strategies and mechanisms for coping with drought were found to be the social mechanism of sharing animals in the form of either loans or gifts, recourse to cultivation, population mobility in the form of either pastoral migration or wage labour migration, exploitation of trees as sales for firewood or sales of tree products. After investigating the causal factors that link the environment, food production and the incidence of famine, the paper outlines how structural processes of marginalization that have resulted from the massive state interventions in land use patterns and related changes in the infrastructural base of the economy, which have entailed the disruption and debasement of the existing mode of pastoral production and ruptured existing forms of resource use and management, have turned a natural event such as drought into a human disaster that has pushed traditional societies to the edge of existence.
349 El-Hassan, Idris Salim
What if the pastoralists choose not to be pastoralists? The pursuit of education and settled life by the Hadendawa of the Red Sea Hills, Sudan.
In Managing scarcity: human adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, A. G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.), p. 272-284. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 August 1995.
After noting the opinion held by community leaders that their low level of education is largely responsible for their poor management of the situation at the local level and that this has incapacitated them as they do not possess leverage over policies affecting their livelihood at the national level, the paper describes some of the ways followed by the pastoralist Hadendawa, who inhabit the Red Sea Hills area in Eastern Sudan, to achieve the goal of raising the level of education amongst themselves, in the belief that a closer inspection of the element of education will provide one much insight as to how the Hadendawa interpret their problems and envisage the solutions to their worsening conditions. Presents an overview of the aims, relevance for pastoral life, teachings, and impacts of the three models of educational institutions that serve these pastoralists, viz., the urban-based mosque-centered Suakin/Sinkat model which are controlled by the sedentary elite, rural-based centres found around famous points that serve as meeting places for pastoralists, and those related to the "Ali Betai movement".
350 Gadalla, Sanaa Ibrahim
The importance of forest resource management in eastern Sudan: The case of El Rawashda and Wad Kabo Forest Reserve.
In Managing scarcity: Human adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, A. G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.), p. 210-223. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 August 1995.
Presents the case of El Rawashda and Wad Kabo forest reserves, in Eastern Sudan, as an example of environmental degradation in arid and semi-arid areas caused by increased population pressure of both humans and animals, agricultural encroachment and overgrazing. Describes the severe degradation of both forest trees and range plants caused by the heavy dependence of the locals for their various needs as well as the various unsuccessful protection measures undertaken by the Government's Forestry Department at first and by the Fuelwood Development for Energy in Sudan Project later on.
351 Harir, Sherif
Management of scarce resources: Dryland pastoralism among the Zaghawa of Chad and the crisis of the Eighties.
In Managing scarcity: Human adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, A. G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.), p. 163-178. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 Aug 1995.
Presents the view that the Zaghwe pastoralists of Biriye area in Chad have developed complex mechanisms for facing droughts and coming out of these rather well. These include an early warning system based on a deep knowledge of natural phenomenon such as the direction of winds, position of certain stars and the apperance of certain insects and creepers; developing ways of minimizing livestock losses during drier years through recourse to spreading the herd, building fodder resources for lactating animals and evacuating overstocked communal grazing lands. Describes the stability and peace enjoyed by the Zaghwe as well as the absence of persecution and harassement by government sources following the accession to the national government of their offsprings. Discusses their active involvement in the market whereby they supply livestock for export to Libya and other areas, investing or consuming the proceeds from these sales rationally, and also use modern transport. Includes a brief overview of the livelihood of a pastoral household. Concludes with the implications of these findings for managing dryland pastoralism in such a system as this which is characterized by mobility, flexibility, and opportunism as a management practice.
352 Ibrahim, Abdel -Rahman Abbakar
Range management in the Sudan: An overview of the role of the state.
In Managing scarcity: Human adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.), p. 258-271. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 August 1995.
After summarizing the main targets and programmes that relate to the pastoral sector in the Sudan and which are contained in the Comprehensive National Strategy, the official blue-print and plan of action which outlines state development policy (including objectives, programmes and specific targets) for the period 1990/91 - 2000, the paper critically analyses the mechanisms, institutions, and the means by which these programmes are to be realized, further elaborating these issues by examining the implementation of policies and the institutional framework in this process of change with particular reference to the role of the Department of Range Management.
353 Ibrahim, Salah El-Shazali
State policy and pastoral production systems: The integrated land use plan of Rawashda Forest, eastern Sudan.
In Managing scarcity: Human adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, A. G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.), p. 210-223. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 August 1995.
After providing background information as to the conditions of nomadic pastoral production systems in Gedaref State, Sudan and the apparent interest expressed by the government in improving their conditions, the paper presents an overview of the Rawashda Forest Reserve and the integrated land use plan developed for it after it was selected as a pilot area for the Fuelwood Development for Energy in Sudan Project. It then assesses the experience of the Project, highlighting its implications for the pastoralists who use it as a corridor in their seasonal migration, examining its limitations and concluding that not only does the Project undermine the interests of pastoralists but that it also fails to provide a viable model of sustainable environmental management.
354 Kheir, Mohamed; Haile, A.; Araia, W. -A.
Resource management in the Eritrean drylands: Case studies from the central highlands and Eastern lowlands.
In Managing scarcity: Human adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, A. G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.), p. 179-194. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 Aug 1995.
Presents results of a survey undertaken in two different ecological zones in Eritrea, viz., southwestern Hamasien in the central highlands and Gahtelay in the coastal plain, to determine the main methods of adaptation by communities in the past as well as their responses to and newly developed mechanisms for coping with changing circumstances brought about by drought, war and modern development, with emphasis on land, water, natural vegetation, and energy resources administration arrangements and management strategies; cropping systems and cropping strategies; livestock production and management practices; change to agro-pastoralism; and mutually beneficial interactions between pastoralists and highlanders.
355 Manger, Leif
Human adaptation in East African drylands: The dilemma of concepts and approaches.
In Managing scarcity: Human adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, A. G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.), p. 9-29. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 August 1995.
Recommends three broad themes within which the contributions to the regional workshop on human adaptation to scarcity in East African drylands could be categorized, viz., need for adopting a broad "cultural history approach" that incorporates the concepts of time and space, rather than the narrow "development approach" that focuses on crisis management, in the study of and understanding natural resources management in arid and semi-arid areas in East Africa; adopting a human ecology perspective in the analysis of the dynamics of arid and semi-arid ecosystems in relation to their inherent instability, human impact on stability and human adaptation; and the need to view the crisis of pastoralism as being due to external factors such as economic, political, and ecological ones that are affecting the continent and the need to understand these external forces that are having increasing influences on the pastoral ecosystem and thereby causing it greater vulnerability. Highlights conceptual issues concerning adaptation and systems analysis that are relevant for understanding the processes that relate to the state of the natural environment of these areas, coping and viability problems faced by the agro-pastoral people engaged in these adaptations, and issues pertaining to the socio-cultural situation as well as agro-pastoral adaptation within the wider context of regional, national, and international factors that operate and have an effect on the system under discussion.
356 Manger, Leif
Land tenure and pastoral planning in the Red Sea Hills.
In Managing scarcity: Human adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, A. G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.), p. 237-257. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 August 1995.
Highlights the relationship between land degradation and communal land tenure in the Red Sea Hills area in Eastern Sudan by assessing the extent to which the evidence for environmental degradation can be attributed to the workings of the pastoral production system in the area, by critically questioning the validity of the widely held view that traditional pastoral systems are detrimental to the environment, and by examining the extent to which local land tenure systems and institutions function to protect local resources and thus can be made use of to protect same in pastoral development planning, especially in controlling deforestation caused by charcoal production.
357 Muhereza, Frank Emmanuel
Agriculture and pastoralism in Karamoja: Competing or complementary forms of resource use.
In Managing scarcity: Human adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, A. G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.), p. 76-106. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 August 1995.
Examines the changing relationship between pastoralism and agriculture as well as other forms of resource utilization in the predominantly pastoral economy of Karamoja, Uganda, in the face of the persistent crises as manifested by recurrent famines, increased pastoral mobility leading to conflicts over diminishing resources, and violent social relations that exist among different pastoral groups and between pastoralists and other resource users, especially crop cultivators, with whom they have to compete for resources. These include a process of diversification by cattle keepers who have increased crop production so as to reduce possible risks of starvation; inter-dependence between agriculture and cattle rearing; transhumant system of mobile rotational grazing and integration with pastoralism that ensures sustainability through agricultural activities; the phenomenon of outmigration by the Karimojong either in search of better pastures and water and/or to rustle animals in order to replenish stocks reduced by drought and epidemics; systems of land tenure and land distribution in the permanent settlement areas; and coping strategies of families in the face of perennial food shortages.
358 Munzoul, Munzoul Abdalla
Subsistence economy, environmental awareness and resource management in Um Kaddada Province, Northern Darfur State.
In Managing scarcity: Human adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, A. G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.), p. 127-139. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 August 1995.
Assesses the environmental situation in Um Kaddar Province, Sudan and highlights the dynamics and viability of the subsistence economy (which consists of agriculture, pastoralism and gum collection, none of which are geared to accumulation) as well as the awareness in the villages of Burush and Um Gafala to environmental degradation, paying particular attention to measures and means applied by both the local population and governmental institutions to conserve the meager resources, the extent to which local inhabitants benefited from the drought of the 1980s and the relevance of these accumulated indigenous technical knowledge to environmental conservation and resources management.
359 Storas, Frode
Property and social relations in Turkana, Kenya.
In Managing scarcity: Human adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, A. G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.), p. 285-294. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 Aug 1995.
Describes aspects of property relations, especially control over livestock, among the pastoral Turkana, in Kenya. Presents the view that the interests of many persons, including persons from different groups, are attached to every domesticated animal, which makes it difficult to determine how livestock are distributed to individuals. In the absence of a legal system, pensions or social services which guarantee property or economic security, the ability to mobilize support, which implies relationships with others where one has outstanding claims on their livestock and acknowledges that they have claims in his or her own flock, is the only form of security for the nomad. Thus complex networks of social and economic ties link individuals across the region. Discusses the process of establishing these relationships, the rise and resolution of claims and counter-claims, and the need to acquire up to date information in the maintenance of these relationships.
360 Tewodros, A. [Assefa Tewodros].
Economic strategies of diversification among the sedentary 'afar of Wahdes, north eastern Ethiopia.
In managing scarcity: Human adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, A. G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.), p. 140-162. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 Aug 1995.
Discusses the various economic activities adopted, as income generating and/or diversification strategies, by the Afar of Wahdes, an area situated in Koneba woreda of Afar regional administration, Ethiopia, who have started permanent settlements after losing a substantial portion of their livestock due to recurrent droughts and animal diseases that have struck the area, viz., shift to production of small stock (goats and sheep) from that of large animals (cattle and camels); engaging in cultivation and adoption of small scale irrigation; salt production, including casual labour in salt mining, shaping of salt blocks, and salt trading; petty commodity and contraband trade; and migration to Saudi Arabia and Djibouti.
361 Yesuf, A. S. [Ali Said Yesuf].
Survival strategies in the Ethiopian drylands: The case of the Afar pastoralists of the Awash Valley.
In Managing scarcity: Human adaptation in East African drylands. Proceedings of a regional workshop, A. G. M. Ahmed, H. A. Abdel-Ati, (eds.), p. 195-209. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1996.
Regional Workshop on Managing Scarcity: Human Adaptation in East African Drylands, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), 24-26 August 1995.
Highlights some of the major adaptive strategies that the Afar people, pastoralists who inhabit the north-eastern rangelands of Ethiopia, have developed in order to withstand the harsh environment as well as their responses to external pressures that have been imposed on them, viz., herd diversification, herd management practices that divide herding stock according to size and split herds into different camps, livestock movements governed by the availability of water and pasture, customary laws of grazing land management, mutual aid and stock alliances among themselves, reciprocal arrangements with cultivators, diverse mechanisms for copping with drought, as well as Afar responses to the establishment of state farms and the recent process of political decentralization.
362 Farah, K. O.
Paradigmatic shifts in rangeland management of African savannahs: Implications for pastoral development. A case of Northeastern Kenya.
In Dryland husbandry in Kenya. Workshop report, p. 29-37. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). Dryland Husbandry Project; Nairobi Univ. (Kenya). Department of Range Management; Linkoping Univ. (Sweden). Research Programme on Environmental Policy and Society. OSSREA DHP Publications Series. 1997. no. 2.
National Workshop on Dryland Husbandry in Kenya, Kibwezi (Kenya), 17-19 April 1995.
Identifies three distinct phases through which the management and development of rangelands in Northeast Kenya has evolved, viz., the colonial, early post-independence, and the post-1979 period, noting the lack of goodwill as well as marginal level and piecemeal nature of the Government's livestock, pastoral and range development policy in the first period; the unsound basis for and consequent failure of two development projects that were established in the second period; and serious shortcomings in the management and development policies, which had been based on the mainstream and conventional view of range management, that were adopted in the third period even though the Government had re-oriented its development policy so as to accord greater focus to the arid and semi-arid lands. Highlights the need for amalgamating indigenous knowledge into pastoral development programmes, and lists some of the fundamental factors, ignored in both past and present policies, that need to be taken into consideration when formulating policies for rangelands development in Kenya.
363 Kisyula, R.
Integrated development strategies in greater Kibwezi Division with special emphasis on agriculture and related issues.
In Dryland husbandry in Kenya. Workshop report, p. 43-50. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). Dryland Husbandry Project; Nairobi Univ. (Kenya). Department of Range Management; Linkoping Univ. (Sweden). Research Programme on Environmental Policy and Society. OSSREA DHP Publications Series. 1997. no. 2.
National Workshop on Dryland Husbandry in Kenya, Kibwezi (Kenya), 17-19 Apr 1995.
Highlights the importance of the principle of integrated or holistic approach to development planning for sustainability, presenting a broad explanation of the concept of integration in development before focusing on integrated development. Challenges facing development agencies as well as suggestions for developments in education and self-governance, health programmes, agriculture, and marketing are highlighted.
364 Musimba, N. K. R.
Pastoral and agro-pastoral extension services: How they differ from conventional livestock development extension services.
In Dryland husbandry in Kenya. Workshop report, p. 68-75. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). Dryland Husbandry Project; Nairobi Univ. (Kenya). Department of Range Management; Linkoping Univ. (Sweden). Research Programme on Environmental Policy and Society. OSSREA DHP Publications Series. 1997. no. 2.
National Workshop on Dryland Husbandry in Kenya, Kibwezi (Kenya), 17-19 Apr 1995.
Compares different attributes of traditional systems of extension services with those for pastoral systems and, based on this, calls for alternative approaches in the provision of the later which should underscore the need for setting up appropriate objectives for extension programmes and should address the problems of institutionalizing appropriate responses. After noting the misconception of equating livestock development to pastoral development, that has been responsible for the failure of most pastoral development projects, the paper highlights the need for greater use of extension agents from pastoral backgrounds, who are based within the pastoral area or move with pastoralists; and for allowing pastoralists a greater say in extension design and implementation, through a suitable organizational structure of pastoral institutions in order to bridge the communication gap that exists between the extension service and pastoralists.
365 Nyangito, Moses M.
Non-conventional feed resources for agropastoral production systems.
In Dryland husbandry in Kenya. Workshop report, p. 51-63. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). Dryland Husbandry Project; Nairobi Univ. (Kenya). Department of Range Management; Linkoping Univ. (Sweden). Research Programme on Environmental Policy and Society. OSSREA DHP Publications Series. 1997. no. 2.
National Workshop on Dryland Husbandry in Kenya, Kibwezi (Kenya), 17-19 April 1995.
The agropastoral and pastoral production systems are predominantly confined to the arid and semi-arid zones, the main human activity being livestock production based on natural forage. Due to population pressure, these systems have been marginalized to very arid areas where forage production is limited by shortage of rains. Thus non-conventional feeds should supply nitrogen, energy and some minerals deficient in natural forage. Animal wastes, crop residues, ley grasses and browse are the best alternatives in meeting these feed supply requirements.
366 Nyariki, D. M.; Musimba, N. K. R.
The agricultural production potential and production strategies in Kibwezi Division of Makueni District.
In Dryland husbandry in Kenya. Workshop report, p. 20-28. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). Dryland Husbandry Project; Nairobi Univ. (Kenya). Department of Range Management; Linkoping Univ. (Sweden). Research Programme on Environmental Policy and Society. OSSREA DHP Publications Series. 1997. no. 2.
National Workshop on Dryland Husbandry in Kenya, Kibwezi (Kenya), 17-19 April 1995.
Summarizes findings from several data collections exercises that were made to obtain base-line information on agricultural resources, production parameters and common practices in the mostly arid and semi-arid Kibwezi Division, Kenya, with emphasis on crop production and livestock production practices. Includes an economic analysis of the technical and economic efficiencies of crop only and crop-livestock producing farmers in the area.
367 Waithanji, E. M.; Mutua, J. M.; Kaumbatho, P. G.
Animal draft power in poor resource based rural agro-pastoral system as a key to development and increased production.
In Dryland husbandry in Kenya. Workshop report, p. 76-83. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). Dryland Husbandry Project; Nairobi Univ. (Kenya). Department of Range Management; Linkoping Univ. (Sweden). Research Programme on Environmental Policy and Society. OSSREA DHP Publications Series. 1997. no. 2.
National Workshop on Dryland Husbandry in Kenya, Kibwezi (Kenya), 17-19 April 1995.
The fragmented and small land size, low socio-economic status of the Kenyan farmer and the high cost of motorized power make animal draft power (ADP) the only viable source of farm power for agro-pastoral areas. Its promotion and adoption can play a vital role in increasing production and in general development. The paper briefly highlights some of the constraints and challenges posed by the promotion of ADP utilization, with emphasis on environmental impacts of ADP use and sustainability, animals to be used, their use for transport, gender issues in ADP utilization, availability of tillage and weed control implements, and the need for participatory approach in developing and promoting ADP.
368 Ahmed, Abdel Ghaffar. M.; Mlay, Wilfred
Introduction.
In Environment and sustainable development in Eastern and Southern Africa: Some critical issues, A. G. M. Ahmed, W. Mlay, (eds.), p. 1-8. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1998. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
Introductory chapter that briefly reviews major features of environmental degradation in eastern and Southern Africa and its relationships with poverty, the structure and functioning of the economy, human action, human and livestock population dynamics, political instability, and external debt. It also includes a summary for each of the subsequent chapters.
369 Ali, Ali Abdel Gadir
Adjustment programmes and the environment in sub-Saharan Africa: Some exploratory results.
In Environment and sustainable development in Eastern and Southern Africa: Some critical issues, A. G. M. Ahmed, W. Mlay, (eds.), p. 45-61. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1998. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
Suggests a methodology for looking at the relationship between the environment and structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) from a development perspective despite the limited amount of the literature on the subject and the serious constraints imposed by data limitations in the case of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) on this kind of research. After noting the difficulty of applying the four standard approaches, viz., before-after, with-without, actual-versus-target and simulation, commonly used to compare economic performances under a SAP with that which would have taken in its absence for studying the impact of SAPs on the environment, the paper discusses Barbier and Burgess' study on effects of pricing policies on the environment and the World Bank's approach for exploring the relationship between poverty and the environment. It then utilizes poverty, especially the poverty-gap index, as an intermediate variable linking SAPs and the environment, and presents empirical results for the level of poverty in 10 early-intensive-adjustment-lending, other-adjustment-lending and non-adjustment lending countries in SSA.
370 El-Hassan, Idris Salim
Drought and famine in eastern Sudan: The socio-cultural dimension.
In Environment and sustainable development in Eastern and Southern Africa: Some critical issues, A. G. M. Ahmed, W. Mlay, (eds.), p. 104-117. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1998. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
Presents the view that an analysis of cultural perceptions and social organization are a clue as to why the Hadendawa, the largest of the Beja ethnic group who inhabit the Red Sea Hills area of Eastern Sudan, showed slow and rather inadequate responses during recent periods of drought and famine. The paper argues that their cultural tenets, deriving from pastoralist values of honour, chivalry and ability to protect one's own, are translated into specific dynamics of social organization pertaining to gender, kinship and land control and that the interplay of these elements have resulted in the adoption of strategies that inhibit optimum resource utilization as has been revealed by their inability to make use of women's economic and productive powers, their failure to fully tap those potential food resources that are deemed as being socially degrading, their recourse to a non-optimal exploitation of land resources, and their lack of initiative to venture into new ways of life.
371 Kajoba, Gear M.
The impact of the 1991/92 drought in Zambia.
In Environment and sustainable development in Eastern and Southern Africa: Some critical issues, A. G. M. Ahmed, W. Mlay, (eds.), p. 190-206. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1998. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
Presents an overview of the devastating consequences of the 1991/92 drought, especially on maize production and food security as well as on rural poverty, school attendance, generation of hydro-electricity, and economic growth in Zambia, followed by a discussion as to the amount of food aid obtained from foreign governments and international organizations. Describes several strategies that were devised to cope with the crisis at both the local and national levels, with emphasis on the government's role and activities, with assistance from the international community and non-governmental organizations, in coordinating the distribution of food aid and grain imports. Discusses the interrelationships between food security on one hand and food policy, environmental degradation and development on the other, arguing that the long term solution to the environmental, food and socio-economic crises in Africa lies in the rehabilitation of the collapsed African economies, and especially the food production and distribution systems, rather than reliance on global food redistribution.
372 Kapunda, Stephen M.
Poverty alleviation and food security in Tanzania: An environmental perspective.
In Environment and sustainable development in Eastern and Southern Africa: Some critical issues, A. G. M. Ahmed, W. Mlay, (eds.), p. 83-103. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1998. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
After briefly reviewing the link between poverty, food insecurity and environmental degradation, the paper describes recent trends in the situation regarding food security/food self-sufficiency, population growth and agricultural development in Tanzania. It also discusses food production and revenue generation possibilities in the fishery, wildlife, bee and forest resources of the country. Concludes with policy recommendations pertaining to poverty alleviation, food security promotion, and environmental conservation.
373 Mensah, S. N. A.
The promotion of small farms in Swaziland: A sound agrarian policy, friendly to the environment.
In Environment and sustainable development in Eastern and Southern Africa: Some critical issues A. G. M. Ahmed, W. Mlay, (eds.), p. 128-143. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1998. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
Reviews the theoretical basis for the farm size-productivity debate (i.e., the expectation that large farms in developing countries will tend to have lower productivity than small farms per unit of constant quality of available land) as well as its reality in the context of Swaziland's agricultural production systems. The paper then outlines changes in the supply of farm inputs and other support services that would be required to unleash the productive potential of the stagnant small farm sub-sector on Swazi Nation Land, thereby making it attain its theoretical superior productivity when compared to large farms. It thus justifies increased attention to small farms for agricultural production and development in the country. The paper further argues that this emphasis on small farms harmonizes better with the requirements of environmental protection as it results in less soil erosion, more frugal application of chemical fertilizers and less need for other farm chemicals and hence less pollution. It also discusses the employment generation implications of this approach.
374 Milazi, Dominic
Restoring the land: environment and change in a non-racial, democratic South Africa. A socio-historical investigation into rural underdevelopment, environmental decline and modalities of transformation.
In Environment and sustainable development in Eastern and Southern Africa: Some critical issues, A. G. M. Ahmed, W. Mlay, (eds.), p. 207-230. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1998. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
Examines South Africa's environment from a social scientific viewpoint, focusing on the interplay between three inter-related parameters, viz., racism, rural-urban resource distribution, and the political economy within the country's context of apartheid and post-apartheid struggles. Presents a historical and sociological analysis of rural underdevelopment and environmental degradation in the country. Includes proposals pertaining to modalities of restoring the land, and the environment, through appropriate changes in a post-apartheid era. The paper draws on multiple methodologies, including ethnographic analysis and historical readings of public records. After noting the existence of environmental problems such as the "racialization" of access to resources and the underdevelopment of rural areas, as well as the existence of a rapid and uncontrolled urbanization which has resulted in absolute poverty and the degradation of local ecosystems (both of which have been exacerbated by the apartheid policy of racial segregation and relocating people in marginally productive informal settlements), the paper concludes with the debate on what are considered to be the problematic nature of land reform and environmental intervention.
375 Mlay, Wilfred.
Population dynamics and the environment.
In Environment and sustainable development in Eastern and Southern Africa: Some critical issues, A. G. M. Ahmed, W. Mlay, (eds.), p. 30-44. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1998. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
Argues that while population growth and environmental changes are closely interrelated, linkages between environmental damage and rapid population growth are often overstated and therefore misleading. Supports this assertion by analyzing the balanced co-existence relationship that used to exist between human beings and their environment until the 1960s and the series of environmental crises in the 70s and 80s that gave rise to alarms about the population bomb; the long- but not short-term benefits of population control on the environment; and the implications of regional variations (developed Vs developing) in population trends. Maintains that the underlying and fundamental causes of environmental degradation in developing countries, and especially Africa, are poverty, colonial forms of resource exploitation combined with rapid population increase, and low population density and small size populations and not population dynamics, and hence that solutions to environmental problems must be sought beyond human population management and control and should focus on a different development policy.
376 Mohamed-Salih, M. A.
The response of non-governmental organizations to the ecological crisis in the South with special reference to eastern Africa.
In Environment and sustainable development in Eastern and Southern Africa: Some critical issues, A. G. M. Ahmed, W. Mlay, (eds.), p. 62-82. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1998. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
Discusses main features of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) active in East Africa, with emphasis on sources of their finances, the belief that advocates of NGOs attempt to advance regarding their role and importance, how NGOs have been received by the states in which they operate along with the reasons for this attitude, and NGOs ability to help save the environment on top of their work of social welfare and micro-development. Emphasizes the need to shift from a poverty alleviation to a sustainable development approach in the activities of NGOs, highlighting three issues that NGOs need to address (devising environmentally sustainable development without lowering the standard of living of the already rural poor, tapping local knowledge as well as fostering a participatory ethos and collective responsibility, and playing a more formidable advocacy role in the empowerment of poor people's access to power, resources and services) and three challenges that need to be overcome (complexities related to fostering a participatory ethos and collective responsibility towards land, political implications of advocating empowerment, and inducing poor people to adopt sustainable production systems while satisfying their basic needs without degrading the environment) for success. Reviews the realization by NGOs of the link between population, the environment and sustainable development and their responses to the ecological crises and other environmental conservation issues such as drought, dryland degradation, poverty-related environmental destruction, trade in endangered species, dumping of hazardous wastes and the preservation of tropical forests that have manifested themselves in East Africa. Describes also the role played by NGOs in increasing awareness about global environmental concerns as well as in global environmental negotiations.
377 Nambote, M. A.
Agricultural extension policy in Malawi: Past experiences and future directions.
In Environment and sustainable development in Eastern and Southern Africa: Some critical issues, A. G. M. Ahmed, W. Mlay, (eds.), p. 176-189. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1998. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
After briefly outlining Malawi's current agricultural policy as well as the specific policy guidelines, drawn from this policy statement, that pertain to the Department of Extension and Training, the paper presents an overview of the organization and operation of agricultural extension in the country, with emphasis on the institutional setup, methods of contact, and research-extension-farmer linkage mechanisms. Summarizes some of the constraints that have been found in the present top-down and prescriptive approach of addressing smallholder farmers and recommends areas for policy research to overcome these.
378 Omosa, Mary
Sustainability of forests in Kenya: Emerging issues.
In Environment and sustainable development in Eastern and Southern Africa: Some critical issues, A. G. M. Ahmed, W. Mlay, (eds.), p. 161-175. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1998. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
Reviews briefly Kenya's forestry development policies, which were mainly geared to the production of industrial wood in the 1960s and early 1970s with a change in emphasis in the mid-1970s towards ensuring a sustainable and growing supply of timber for more traditional domestic needs (by increasing the production of building poles and fuelwood on private farmland in rural areas and protecting steep slopes from erosion) while satisfying the expanding industrial demand for forest products. This resulted in the expansion of rural afforestation schemes which brought into focus the role of the community in the sustainable utilization of forest resources. Demonstrates the importance of involving the local community in the management of forests by showing the limited success of the government's efforts to single-handedly afforestate and reforestate the Bura Irrigation Settlement Scheme in a semi-arid region. Highlights some of the issues that have become evident after several years of centre-driven and industrially-focused forest policies, viz., supply and demand imbalances for fuelwood, increased reliance of households on forest areas for fuelwood, land use conflicts for agricultural and forestry purposes, deforestation (especially for charcoal making), and reduction in access to forest areas and other "common" lands by the rural poor. Discusses what the government has attempted to do to resolve these emerging challenges/conflicts and what could possibly be undertaken such as promoting popular participation as well as farm and community forestry, to ensure the sustainability of forest resources.
379 Rasheed, Sadig
Sustainable development in the Africa in the 1990's and beyond: Meeting the challenge.
In Environment and sustainable development in Eastern and Southern Africa: Some critical issues, A. G. M. Ahmed, W. Mlay, (eds.), p. 9-29. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1998. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
Reviews briefly the economic crisis, notably the decline in per capita income and standards of living, and the worsening social and economic conditions faced by the majority of the people in Africa in the 1980s and the first three years of 1990s. Discusses the varied facets of environmental degradation such as increased deforestation, growing threat of desertification, and recurrent droughts affecting the region. Outlines the need for deliberate efforts and resolute actions to reverse these declining socio-economic trends and also put the continent on the path of sustained and environmentally sound development. Assesses the prospects of Africa in meeting the challenge of achieving structural transformation and sustained and environmentally sound development, highlighting the actions and policies that will be required of African governments, the African people, donor countries and development aid financial institutions, the Organization of African Unity, and non-governmental organizations.
380 Rugumamu, W.
The impact of agricultural technology on sustainable land resource utilization in Africa: The case of semi-arid Tanzania.
In Environment and sustainable development in Eastern and Southern Africa: some critical issues, A. G. M. Ahmed, W. Mlay, (eds.), p. 144-160. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1998. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
Presents the view that the unadjusted (imported) agricultural technology that has been adopted in the agricultural production process, coupled with unfavourable environmental conditions, forms the root cause of environmental degradation, low yields and rural poverty in Africa. Supports this assertion by exploring the environmental impacts of traditional and modern production technologies on four land use types, viz., livestock keeping based on indigenous breeds and traditional free range grazing, smallholder farming based on indigenous intermediate level technology and rainfed crop production, smallholder farming based on indigenous technology and rainfed paddy, and smallholder farming based on imported intermediate level technology of mechanized irrigated paddy, in a case study of Bahi-Sokoni, a village in semi-arid Tanzania. Concludes that, in technology policy design, impact identification is an essential key for the selection of appropriate technologies that are capable of combating environmental degradation while improving the quality of life of smallholder farmers and pastoralists, and hopes that the above findings will contribute to an informed debate on the current "national conservation strategy" in Africa.
381 Tagwira, F.
Soil erosion and conservation techniques for sustainable crop production in Zimbabwe.
In Environment and sustainable development in Eastern and Southern Africa: Some critical issues, A. G. M. Ahmed, W. Mlay, (eds.), p. 118-127. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1998. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
After briefly reviewing the extent of soil erosion in Zimbabwe as well as its negative effects on soil fertility and water supply in the country, the paper highlights the major causes of this high rate of soil erosion, control measures such as tie-ridging mulch farming systems, and micro-catchment tillage that are being practiced and promoted in the country, as well as the gains, in terms of reduction of soil loss, runoff loss, nutrient losses and increases in yields that have been achieved by implementing the above control measures on both small scale and commercial farming units.
382 Abdel-Ati, Hassan A.; Awad, Nadir Mohamed
Effectiveness of environmental planning in Sudan.
In Environmental planning, policies and politics in Eastern and Southern Africa, M. A. Mohamed-Salih, S. Tedla, (eds.), p. 102-120. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1999. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
Assesses the state of environmental degradation in the Sudan and reviews the attempts being made by the government to protect and maintain environmental sustainability by introducing legislation and environmental planning, with emphasis on the major environmental problems facing the country; the evolution and development of environmental management policies after independence; and objectives, programme for implementation, strengths of, and contradictions inherent in the latest National Comprehensive Strategy that was adopted for the period 1992 to 2002. Explores the achievements and failures of the various environmental plans, along with their weaknesses and other constraints which have contributed to their poor performance.
383 Darkoh, Michael B. Kwesi
Desertification and environmental management in Botswana.
In Environmental planning, policies and politics in Eastern and Southern Africa, M. A. Mohamed-Salih, S. Tedla, (eds.), p. 181-199. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1999. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
Reviews some of the socio-economic changes that have led to an exacerbation of the ecological crisis and increased range degradation and hence desertification in Botswana, viz., an alarming increase in both human and livestock populations; the development of a market-oriented economy (and especially beef export markets) which has given cattle a high market value; and water prospecting and borehole drilling which have enabled livestock raising to push further west and use the Kalahari sandveld as a grazing resource. Presents a case study of the causes and main features of the process of desertification in the mid-Botei area in the Kalahari sandveld. Discusses government policies on range degradation and rangeland management, as well as measures that have been introduced to combat desertification. Constraints that have hampered these efforts include unfavourable climatic/natural conditions, lack of an appropriate government policy, economic growth factors, population growth and poverty, and lack of adequate and trained manpower.
384 Marake, Makoala V.; Molumeli, Polile A.
Environmental management in Lesotho: The limitation of legal instruments.
In Environmental planning, policies and politics in Eastern and Southern Africa, M. A. Mohamed-Salih, S. Tedla, (eds.), p. 80-101. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1999. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
After a review of current soil and water as well as forestry conservation policies in Lesotho along with their evolution from the colonial period until the present, the paper describes the existing traditional and modern legislation that pertain to natural resources management in the country and outlines the principal government policies and programmes that address problems in the environment-development nexus, i.e., not only conservation measures but also development policies that have a significant bearing on agriculture, land use, soil and water conservation, and energy resources. Includes a critical analysis of the causes for the failure of past conservation efforts, which can be ascribed to a lack of popular participation, non-continuity of projects, deficiencies in the regulations concerning conservation, and focus on mechanical rather than biological conservation treatments.
385 Mohamed-Salih, M. A.
Introduction: Environmental planning, policies and politics in Eastern and Southern Africa.
In Environmental planning, policies and politics in Eastern and Southern Africa, M. A. Mohamed-Salih, S. Tedla, (eds.), p. 1-17. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1999. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
Introductory chapter that attempts to synthesize issues related to whether the national conservation strategies (NCSs) and national environmental action plans (NEAPs) of countries in Eastern and Southern Africa have worked as intended or not, the constraints and impediments that have confronted them, and whether these problems are surmountable or not. Reviews the various global, regional and sub-regional agreements, conventions and treaties on the management of Africa's environment that have been accessed to by countries in the region, both in the past and at present, in order to determine how these have contributed to the policy formulation process as well as to assess the success and failure of the policies that have been implemented. After critically examining whether African environmental policies satisfy the five main principles of environmental policy as described by Opschoor and Turner, viz., the polluter pays principle, prevention or precautionary principle, economic efficiency/cost effectiveness principle, subsidiarity principle, and legal efficiency principle, the chapter notes that NEAPs and NCSs are hard to implement, even though they have had limited success. Summarizes briefly the conclusions of the case studies, which form the topics of subsequent chapters.
386 Mwafongo, Welbon M. Kasweswe.; Kapila, Mesheck L. M.
Environmental management in Malawi: Lessons from failure.
In Environmental planning, policies and politics in Eastern and Southern Africa, M. A. Mohamed-Salih, S. Tedla, (eds.), p. 59-79. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1999. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
After highlighting the magnitude of environmental problems, which take the form of soil erosion, deforestation, degradation of water and other natural resources, and increased urban and industrial waste, in Malawi, the paper presents an overview of the development of conservation and environmental management plans in the country, with emphasis on the constitutional basis for, institutional setups, formulation and implementation of successive environmental action plans and management policies by the government, and the important role being played by non-governmental organizations in fostering community based resource management programees. Concludes by outlining causes for the past failures as well as those actions that the author deems essential for future success.
387 Mwalyosi, Raphael B. B.; Sosovele, Hussein
National environmental policies in Tanzania: Processes and politics.
In Environmental planning, policies and politics in Eastern and Southern Africa, M. A. Mohamed-Salih, S. Tedla, (eds.), p. 121-140. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1999. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
After briefly describing the causes, present status and consequences of deforestation, soil erosion and loss of fertility, pollution, deterioration of aquatic systems, and loss of biodiversity, which are some of the major environmental problems currently facing Tanzania, the paper assesses the effectiveness of the integrated cross-sectoral natural resources management (NRM) strategies and plans adopted in the country by critically reviewing such issues as the evolution of institutions charged with NRM, notably the National Environment Management Council; the preparation and implementation of the National Conservation Strategy for Sustainable Development strategy, along with its objectives and shortcomings; the adoption of the National Environmental Action Plan, the National Plan to Combat Desertification, the Tanzanian Forestry Action Plan, and the National Environmental Policy for Zanzibar. Emphasizes the importance of institution building at the local level for an effective NRM, discussing the possibility of integrating such institutions with regional and national level governmental organizations during project design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation for a fuller participation of local communities in a successful NRM endeavour.
388 Sengendo, Hannigton; Musali, Paul K.
Environmental management in Uganda: A critique.
In Environmental planning, policies and politics in Eastern and Southern Africa, M. A. Mohamed-Salih, S. Tedla, (eds.), p. 141-161. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1999. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
After briefly highlighting Uganda's efforts in the management and conservation of natural resources, the paper critically reviews the various sectoral policies and legislation pertaining to forestry, agriculture and soil conservation, wildlife, fisheries, water, and wetlands that have been adopted in the country, outlining the major weaknesses of this sectoral approach on which the country had relied. It then explores the relationship between the new cross-sectoral National Environment Action Plan, which calls for the reorientation of national and local efforts to address environmental protection in a more comprehensive and integrated manner, as well as the new environmental policies, legislation and institutional arrangements that have been put in place in order to point out the strengths and weaknesses of this action plan.
389 Tedla, S.; Lemma, K. [Shibru Tedla; Kifle Lemma].
National environmental management in Ethiopia: In search of people's space.
In Environmental planning, policies and politics in Eastern and Southern Africa, M. A. Mohamed-Salih, S. Tedla, (eds.), p. 18-40. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1999. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
Presents results of a study aimed at assessing whether the environmental conservation plans that had been hitherto formulated in Ethiopia have worked, and if not, to find out why this has happened, by examining the prevailing situation in environmental management and by identifying missing links in proper environmental management. After a background on the global view about the importance of natural resources management and environmental management initiatives in Africa, the study highlights the major environmental concerns in Ethiopia, viz., the ecological crisis due to land degradation and deforestation, population growth and its uneven distribution, mismanagement of natural resources, insufficient attention to biodiversity conservation and management, absence of land use planning, lack of participation in resources management, natural resources tenure insecurity, and an absence of environmental economics. Reviews the evolution of environmental conservation policies and legislation in the country during the pre-Second World War period, the laissez-faire period of 1957-1974, the period between 1974-1991, and the post-1991 period. Discusses, briefly, the mandates of each of the major governmental institutions active in environmental management. Reasons for the lack of impact of environmental conservation plans are identified as being inappropriate government policies with regard to land reform, and ownership and management of forest resources; decentralization of environmental management responsibilities; a lack of popular participation; as well as problems inherent in the policies, laws and regulations, and the implementing mechanisms. Assesses future prospects in environmental management in relation to the provisions of the Constitution, sectoral legislation and institutional legislation. Includes recommendations regarding environmental laws as well as the 6 constituent programmes of the country's Fifth Development Plan.
390 Theo, Davison .D.; Chabwela, Herry N.
Environmental conservation and planning in Zambia.
In Environmental planning, policies and politics in Eastern and Southern Africa, M. A. Mohamed-Salih, S. Tedla, (eds.), p. 162-180. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1999. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
After a brief overview of the major environmental concerns in Zambia, notably, the over-exploitation and poor management of natural resources such as forests, wildlife and in the country over a period of thirty years based on an in-depth examination of the evolution of conservation policies and legislation over the period. These plans and efforts were characterized by sectoral programmes pertaining to forestry and wildlife in the First National Development Plan, the addition of programmes for fisheries in the Second, the establishment of a Natural Resources Department charged with establishing conservation practices at local and village levels in the Third, and the incorporation of the National Conservation Strategy (NCS) into the Development Plan as well as the introduction of a Population Policy in the Fourth. Discusses the objectives, design, implementation and success of the NCS, the processes passed through in formulating a new National Environment Action Plan and a Zambia Forestry Action Plan, as well as the implementation of international conventions and treaties which the country has signed. Critically assesses the success or failure of these conservation plans and policies.
391 Wamicha, Welington Nguya; Mwanje, Justus Inonda
National resource management policies in Kenya: The politics within.
In Environmental planning, policies and politics in Eastern and Southern Africa, M. A., Mohamed-Salih, S. Tedla, (eds.), p. 41-58. OSSREA, Addis Ababa (Ethiopia). 1999. Basingstoke (UK): Macmillan Press Ltd.
Briefly outlines the four major factors that pertain to resource management challenges in Kenya, viz., lack of a land use master plan based on an inventory of the natural resources, a comprehensive land use policy and an integrated environmental law; lack of an opertionalized development plan for the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) and the still-to-be implemented status of the environmental action plan developed for ASALs; different laws that control access to and use of water resources in the high potential, sedentarized ASALs and other ASALs; and inappropriate forest management policies. Reviews environmental management planning in Kenya, which were characterized by being made centrally from 1963 to 1978 but where the district has become the focus of planning since then. Discusses the evolution of the legal framework pertaining to environment planning in the colonial period (hardly any), the Kenyatta era (sectoral laws dealing with specific and scattered conservation issues), and the Moi era (consolidation of laws but a proliferation and creation of specialized bodies that deal with special interests in the management of natural resources). Based on these, the paper notes the politics within and the contradictions inherent in these discordant sectoral environmental policies and their negative consequences on people, the policy formulation process and implementation. Presents suggestions on how a comprehensive plan can be developed.
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