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5. SUMMARY OF PAPERS PRESENTED

5.1 The Zimbabwe Economy since Independence and the Way Forward

Mr. Makamure's presentation started off by giving a situation analysis of the socio-economic environment in Zimbabwe from the time of independence to 1990. He highlighted the fact that whilst the decade witnessed a marked increase in government expenditure on social service provision, it became increasingly clear that the performance of the economy would not sustain the desired development objectives.

Mr. Makamure pointed out that having experienced socio-economic problems, Zimbabwe adopted the Economic Structural Adjustment Programme (ESAP) in 1991. Its main aim was to improve living conditions through rapid and sustainable economic growth. The main target of ESAP from the Government of Zimbabwe's point of view included:

These targets were to be supplemented by sectoral initiatives related to population and health education and training, agriculture, environment, energy and the informal sector.

Mr. Makamure's presentation also cited various statistical indicators to show the performance of the economy under ESAP. These indicators were not as anticipated at the inception of ESAP. ZIMPREST came after ESAP and its minimum target envisaged the following:

Now the Millennium Economic Recovery Programme has been implemented, but there has been no upturn in the economic indicators, the main reason being loss of macroeconomic balance due to the size of the budge during ESAP, ZIMPREST and MERP.

Mr. Makamure emphasized that the current economic crisis was a result of decade of poor economic growth and performance. As a way forward, the presenter suggested the following possible strategies:

Dr. Dhliwayo, discussant to the presentation by Mr. Makamure, applauded the paper presented. The discussant pointed out that he was glad that the presenter had emphasized the issue of rule of law and governance because of its importance in policy implementation and the encouragement of foreign and domestic investment. Dr. Dhliwayo pointed out that the use of governance needed to be tackled head-on, along side with other issues such as low interest rates and the need to come up with an appropriate exchange rate policy supported by appropriate fiscal and monetary policies.

5.1.2. Discussion by participants

The participants basically expressed concern about the current economic crisis in Zimbabwe and what the possible solutions might be. Solutions debated included how investor confidence could be resorted. It was felt that politicians should be held accountable through institutions such as the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe, which is currently like an arm of the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development.

Concern was also expressed about the view that Zimbabwe is always in an election mode and the question that was raised was how much is electioneering a factor in the current economic situation. If it was a factor, it was felt that Presidential elections should be brought forward.

The floor discussions also alluded to individuals' contribution to development and that government and individuals should not be separated. It was pointed out that pride in one's country is an important ingredient to development. However, it was observed that there was no more determination on the part of some individuals to bring about Afro-centric development to Zimbabwe because Government itself is not committed and is not setting an example.

5.2 Health: Economic and Political Dynamics

Dr. Matchaba-Hove's presentation began with the World Health Organization's definition of health. He highlighted the fact that the major factors of health were not only determined by the health sector, but also by the political and economic reality of a nation. Dr. Matchaba-Hove indicated that before independence, health service provision was fraught with racism and urban bias. The majority of the blacks who lived in the rural areas suffered from poverty-related diseases such as communicable diseases and nutrition-deficiency diseases.

The presenter explained that in 1980, when Zimbabwe attained its independence, it adopted the "Growth with Equity and the Primary Health Care" policies in health service provision. These policies emphasized rural health care development and these culminated into the expansion of the following programmes, which included mobile clinics, integration of the traditional midwives into the formal health system and training of village health workers. Primary Health Care, which the WHO describes as essential health care, was adopted because of its principles of affordability, accessibility and acceptability in relation to the various communities. The components of PHC included family planning, treatment of minor ailments, health education, immunization of land water supply and sanitation.

In his presentation, Dr. Matchaba-Hove explained the phenomenal change in health service provision in Zimbabwe during the first ten years of independence. The infant mortality rate amongst children under one year in 1980 was 96 out of 1000 live births. By 1990, this figure had gone down to 55. Maternal mortality rate was 120 out of every 100,000. By 1990, this figure had gone down to 86. Life expectancy in 1980 was 50 years and this rose to 60 years and above in 1990. This achievement was attributed to PHC.

Dr. Matchaba-Hove then pointed out that regrettably, all the gains achieved in the first ten years of independence have been eroded due to the impact of HIV/AIDS, drought (described as the worst in living memory) and the impact of the Economic Adjustment Programme (ESAP). Furthermore, the crisis in public health human resources characterized by industrial action, huge brain drain from public to the private sector and outside the country. As a result, in 1999, infant mortality rose to 120 out of 1,000 live births, maternal mortality rates rose to over 100 women out of 100,000. Life expectancy rates have decreased significantly. The estimates vary between below 55 years, 42 years, and, in extreme cases, life expectancy is said to be around 30.

Dr. Matchaba-Hove pointed out that the emerging trends show that the health of Zimbabweans will continue to be compromised. He pointed out that 25% of the adult population is HIV positive and that HIV/AIDS continues to largely affect infants, adolescents and those in the productive age group. Resources will be required to treat the ill and replace the deceased. ESAP will continue to marginalize the poor, as they have no means to meet the demands of cost recovery in health provision. The referral system is weak and one of the effects of this is that many babies are now being born before admission. Furthermore, the burden of infectious disease will continue to grow. More and more people, especially the poor, will continue to suffer from non-communicable diseases due to poor diet, bad social habits such as smoking and lack of exercise. People dying as a result of road traffic accidents will continue to increase. Rural/urban migration and poverty will continue to increase, and hence the health implications of this. Wars and natural disasters will continue to increase and Zimbabwe is likely to see an increase in refugees and migrants. Regrettably, the army is likely to continue receiving high national budgetary allocation compared to the health sector. In addition, curative medicine continues to take the chunk of the national budget allocation compared to the preventive medicine and research.

Dr. Matchaba-Hove suggested the following as possible strategies to address the problems:

5.4.1 Discussant's remarks

The discussant to Dr. Matchaba-Hove's presentation, Dr. Masuku, described the presentation as direct and challenging. He also emphasized the need to mainstream the traditional sector into the modern sector.

Masuku further highlighted the need to encourage healthy life styles amongst all target populations, including the affluent. He said that there was a need to encourage early diagnosis and treatment for everybody, adding that even those who could afford to buy health services sometimes left it too late. The discussant ended his discussion by posing a question related to how the rural folk can participate in health issues. He also expressed concern about the neglect of research in health issues. He attributed this neglect, in part, to the absence of a science and technology policy. This deficiency compromises meaningful development because research needs to be guided by such a policy.

5.2.2 Discussion by participants

Several issues related to the presentation were raised during floor discussions. It was strongly felt that there is a need to conduct research into the location of health facilities vis-à-vis cost and time spent when accessing these services. When conducting such research, it would be useful to establish the impact of these variables on food production and food security. In response to a question on Zimbabwe's annual population growth, Dr. Matchaba-Hove pointed out that Zimbabwe's annual population growth rate now stands at 2.5% per annum. He further pointed out that the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare has attributed this decline to the efficiency of family planning services and increased access to education because the educated tend to have fewer children. The presenter, however, expressed concern about the impact the impact of HIV/AIDS. Currently it is estimated that there are 130,000 AIDS-related deaths per year in Zimbabwe (approximately 10,000 AIDS-related deaths per month) and that about half a million children have lost at least one parent to HIV/AIDS. As a result, there are many child-headed households. It was further observed that due to its heavy burden, HIV/AIDS was leading to the neglect of other areas of health such as malaria and nutrition. The participants also expressed concern about the increasing number of non-communicable diseases related to poor diets amongst the poor

On health education, it was pointed out that there is a need to embark on more state-sponsored initiatives and that there is a need to evaluate what the non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are doing in this area. In addition, it was felt that there is a need for NGOs to identify priority areas for research at national, regional and SADC levels. Related to this point, it was pointed out that there is a need to adopt an Afro-centric approach to health and that it was unfortunate that this area was not receiving adequate attention in terms of research and resource allocation.

The participants also alluded to the fact that with the deterioration of the mobile heath services, Village Health Workers' activities have subsequently been compromised. It was felt that there was a need to re-invigorate this sector. However, the commendable role that the traditional midwives have played was acknowledged.

On traditional medicine in Zimbabwe, the participants felt that biases still exist and that there are lessons that Zimbabwe can learn from the Chinese experience in terms of dealing with psychiatric patients. The participants, however, acknowledged that in Zimbabwe, traditional healers are allowed into the psychiatric wards, but are not allowed to administer any medicines. Furthermore, there is a provision to release psychiatric patients for a day or two to enable them to undergo traditional rituals.

5.3 Keeping on Knocking: Zimbabwean Labour since Independence and Its Future Prospects

(L. Sachikonye)

Professor Sachikonye's presentation traced the major stages in the evolution of labour in the 1980s and 1990s, paying attention to structural aspects such as organizational capacity as well as relations with the state. The presentation also looked at the changing roles and fortunes of organized Zimbabwean labour since independence, and its prospects in the short and medium term.

Professor Sachikonye's presentation provided an overview of Zimbabwe labour in the 1980s. The presenter indicated that although it had proved resilient in the last decade of colonial rule, the labour movement that existed at independence was a relatively weak one in quantitative and qualitative terms. Professor Sachikonye attributed this in part to colonial repression and structural factors. The movement had as its base a formal sector working class of 1.2 million, which grew to 1.5 million in 1999. This constituted approximately 10%, and later 12% of the total population. This relatively small size of the working class was an index of the limited level of industrialisation in Zimbabwe. Furthermore, the oscillation of migrant workers between capitalist industry and the peasant sector contributed to the ambivalence in their class consciousness. Furthermore, Prof. Sachikonye pointed out that there were not many large and strong industrial unions. Most were small craft-based unions characterised by low membership and had a deficit of organizational skills and related resources. The low level of unionisation was attributed to the authoritarian framework that inhibited the formation of large industrial unions by restricting membership mobilization by union organizers. In addition, there was no single unified national labour centre, but a proliferation of up to six different centres. Therefore, at independence, Zimbabwe had a fragmented and weak labour movement. The presenter pointed out that soon after independence, there was a massive upsurge of strikes to challenge the vestiges of the colonial labour regime.

Prof. Sachikonye indicated that three notable developments characterized the state of labour relations and the role of the labour movement in the1980s. The first was uniting the labour movement into one national labour centre, namely, the Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions (ZCTU). The second was the emergence of divisions within the labour movement that became pronounced in the 1984 - 1985 period. Competition for leadership became intense between the incumbent union leadership that professed allegiance to ZANU-PF party and government, and a fraction that advocated autonomy for the labour movement. At the 1985 Congress, the fraction that advocated autonomy won the elections, and steered the ZCTU towards a more independent posture. The third development was when unions became organizationally stronger and developed confidence in their skills to engage in collective bargaining. This was to be a major development in industrial relations in the 1990s, although public service workers were excluded. The forthcoming Harmonisation Labour Act is supposed to prescribe a uniform set of rights for both private and public sector workers. Finally the promulgation of the Labour Relations Act in 1985 was a positive development and an important landmark in post-independence labour relations.

Prof. Sachikonye argued that the 1990s represented new and enormous challenges to labour, the first set being associated with ESAP and the second set being associated with the economic crisis that began to deepen as from 1997. In addition, the shift to neo-liberal economic measures under EASP had a significant impact on labour relations, for instance, retrenchments as a consequence of restructuring in both private and public sectors, thus enhancing the vulnerability of workers. Prof. Sachikonye further argued that problems for labour arose from an economic crisis that began to worsen as of 1997. A domestic decision that turned out not to be financially prudent was the paying of un-budgeted pension and pay-offs to about 50,000 ex-combatants. An estimated Z$5 billion was paid in order to cover this bill. This led to the ballooning of the budget deficit, an increase in inflation and the erosion of real earnings.

Prof. Sachikonye further argued that Zimbabwe's intervention in the conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo was another expensive expedition, with some estimates putting the average daily cost at US $1 million. During this period, both domestic and foreign debt grew, swallowing up urgently needed resources for key social services such as health and education. Meanwhile, levels of poverty deepened, especially among those in the lower income bracket, and it became necessary for them to supplement their incomes through a multiple set of activities. Labour could not escape this crisis. Prof. Sachikonye referred to some studies that revealed that the amount of gross domestic income devoted to wages and salaries declined in the 1990s. Industry also felt the effects of the economic crisis. For instance, in the textile and clothing sector, in 2000 alone, an estimated 400 companies collapsed resulting in 10,000 job losses.

Prof. Sachikonye indicated that labour has responded in two ways to the economic decline and social crisis. The workplace level response has been channelled through union structures. One principal form of response where collective bargaining has failed has been industrial action. The greatest upsurge of strikes was between 1996 and 2000. Community and national level response to the crisis by the labour movement has been through national stay-aways organised in December 1997, 1998 and 2000. The most recent stay-away was in July 2001. The co-ordinating role of the ZCTU in national-level response to economic decline and crisis has therefore been a significant factor in labour relations.

Prof. Sachikonye was of the view that during the remainder of 2001, economic conditions are not expected to improve significantly. The presenter further anticipated that workers are not likely to become more passive in their struggles for better working conditions than they have been in the past. The public service will continue to be a zone of industrial action. As a consequence of high inflation, big awards do not necessarily translate into enhanced real wages.

Prof. Sachikonye identified the problem of HIV/AIDS epidemic, economic reconstruction and the question of democratisation as the pressing challenges which face labour in the opening years of the new century.

Pertaining to the problem of HIV/AIDS, Prof. Sachikonye indicated that the economic and social implications for labour and business will be massive and that there should therefore be a co-ordinated response to the epidemic by organisations representing these two groups. The ZCTU and individual unions will have to play a more proactive and leading role in strategies to combat HIV/AIDS amongst labour, and the communities from which labour itself is nurtured.

Regarding economic reconstruction, Prof. Sachikonye was of the view that this challenge would need to be addressed through a tripartite dialogue and negotiations over economic and social policy issues, and over specific measures or programmes which have a bearing on the interests of labour. Furthermore, the challenge for labour will be to have provisions that protect workers' interests, ensure their being regularly consulted on social and economic issues and that they are allowed to play a visible role in arrangements for economic recovery which will be indispensable. However, the role of labour will not only relate to economic issues, it cannot isolate itself from broader political and governance issues.

Prof. Sachikonye argued further that the role of labour in the discourse and process of democratisation would continue to be important partly because it is a major force in civil society. However, the challenge to the ZCTU will be to continue to back the process of democratisation without being identified with one particular party or administration as well as not ceding ground to the rival Zimbabwe Federation of Trade Unions (ZFTU).

6.4.1 Discussant's remarks

Mr. A. E. Sibanda the discussant, described Prof. Sachikonye's presentation as comprehensive and informative, and that it pointed to the stages of the development of labour in Zimbabwe. The discussant pointed out that changes within labour reflect certain changes in society and amongst civic groups that bring change through, for instance, new voices.

The discussant questioned how sustainable policies can be if they are coming out of institutions where participation is questionable. Therefore, there is a need to look into the internal dynamics of labour itself, including whether labour is democratic.

The discussant also felt that social contract needs to be debated a lot more because of the declining social responsibility of the state which has manifested through poverty, low social service provision and insecurity. The discussant also pointed out that there was need to include the informal sector when representing civil society.

5.3.2 Discussion by participants

The discussion by the participants reflected concern over the implication of the current brain drain on the strength and direction of the labour movement. Concern was also expressed regarding what the implications are for Zimbabwe as a developing country, given the amount the country has invested in manpower development. It was observed that some sections of the society have argued that the brain drain is a reflection of the fact that Zimbabwean are able to compete internationally for employment. The other school of thought felt that Zimbabwe is offering subsidies to countries attracting Zimbabwean employees and that these countries should pay Zimbabwe. However, it was acknowledged that there was a need to deal with the issue of brain drain in a global context.

It was also observed that labour relations acts in Zimbabwe have serious weaknesses. For instance, public service workers are not covered and yet they constitute 20% of the nation's work force. There is, therefore, a need to harmonise legislation on labour as a way of dealing with the gaps that currently exist.

On the aristocrat / peasantry theory, it was pointed out that there is a need to understand it in the context of globalisation. It was further pointed out that the peasantry can be played against the urban constituency.

The discussion also reflected a point of view pertaining to the internal dynamics in the trade union movement itself. It was felt that these needed to be looked into with a view to making the structures more transparent. It was also felt that the ZCTU and other unions should adjust quickly to changing conditions.

5.4 Women and Vulnerable Groups since Independence and the Way Forward

Ms. Nyatsanza's presentation focused on the situation of women and vulnerable groups in Zimbabwe since independence and the way forward in an environment of an economic reform programme, and the socio-economic problems that have been experienced in recent years. The first group the presenter referred to were women who constitute the majority of Zimbabwe's population, but form only a fifth of workers in formal sector employment. In the informal sector, women were said to account for 57% of the workforce and were often low paid, exposed to various forms of abuse and exploitation. They also often worked in unsafe conditions, especially the farm workers. Ms. Nyatsanza further stated that in the private sector, women share in decision-making positions in professional and technical fields declined from 67% in 1990 to 40% in 1997. Senior women managers in the public service as at May 1999 only contributed 19.7% of total management. On women in the agricultural sector, Ms. Nyatsanza argued that the rights of rural women and land are, at best, very tenuous thus exposing them to abuse and poverty. Women were said to have only secondary right since rural land is generally administered customarily. This is partly because courts in Zimbabwe generally say that the rural home, especially in the case of married women, is the property of the man according to custom. The women simply work the land for the benefit of the family. Ms. Nyatsanza referred to the 2000 Women and Land Lobby Group research which established that women who have expressed interest in the current land reform have been disappointed because it has not been possible for them to move to resettlement areas and bring along their children and other members of their family. The problem has been lack of infrastructure and services such as schools. The study further established that women may or may not be put on lists of persons wishing to be considered for resettlement, depending on the gender sensitivity of the chief or other traditional leaders who would have been assigned to compile this information. Women with disabilities are in an even more precarious position. Vulnerability is worsened due to lack of access to capital.

Children also constitute a vulnerable group. Ms. Nyatsanza indicated that in spite of the existence of the CRC and the National Programme of Action for Children, children are employed on commercial farms or as domestic workers or in the informal sector as vendors. The presenter attributed this to the concentration of poverty in rural areas. These children are particularly vulnerable because it is likely that they are not paid fair wages, they are not given protective clothing and they often have to drop out of school because of the working hours. In extreme cases, these children have no leisure and play time. Related to this group are other farm workers who are in danger of being displaced under the Fast Track resettlement programme. Ms. Nyatsanza quoted figures from the Commercial Farmers Union who estimate that 500 000 farm workers will be displaced. Ms Nyatsanza argued that farm workers are particularly vulnerable because the majority of them came from minority groups, often originally immigrants or children and grandchildren of immigrants from neighbouring countries. Thus, they may have no one who is prepared to stand for them and advocate that they be included on the resettlement lists that are prepared by chiefs.

Ms Nyatsanza identified elderly people as a vulnerable group since they are now prone to economic abuse. Due to inflation, their pensions are not adequate and due to the current economic problems, the elderly are not able to obtain additional support from their children and adult grandchildren. Some elderly people end up looking for employment, even after retirement, thus decreasing jobs available for the youth.

Ms Nyatsanza also argued that young people are remaining dependents for longer periods as they fail to enter the job market. Consequently, they have to rely on the support of parents for much longer periods of time. Those who are fortunate enough to get employment, they have the responsibility of helping share the burden of financially supporting their siblings and parents. For those youths who are prepared to go into unskilled labour, they find themselves out on the informal job market working as domestics or gardeners, often for relatives.

Ms. Nyatsanza referred to the problem of HIV/AIDS, highlighting that Zimbabwe has the second highest adult infection rate globally, with approximately 1 in 4 adults infected. The presenter pointed out that the age groups most affected by the virus are those between 20 - 29, 30 - 39 and 40 - 49. It is anticipated that the number of children orphaned by AIDS is expected to reach 1 million in 2000. Ms. Nyatsanza further indicated that among adolescents aged 15 - 19 years, the female AIDS cases outnumber the male ones by a ratio of over 5:1. Furthermore, the national average on HIV prevalence among women attending antenatal clinics is 30%. Ms. Nyatsanza argued that although no statistics are available, women with disabilities and children with special needs and those who are in poor families are especially vulnerable to HIV infection through sexual abuse.

Ms. Nyatsanza also referred to people with disabilities as being vulnerable and that their situation appears to be worsening. The presenter argued that people with disabilities experienced a general decline in employment, with some staying for as long as 7 years out of employment after college. This was attributed to societal and individual discriminatory attitudes.

Ms. Nyatsanza identified the following strategies as the way forward in addressing the plight of the vulnerable:

7.4.1 Discussant's remarks

Mrs. M. Mafico, discussant to Ms. Nyatsanza, described the presentation as very informative and that it rightly pointed to the complexity of poverty in Zimbabwe. These issues have a human rights perspective, and human rights and human development are linked. When there is no development, it is because of human rights failure and states are responsible for creating the right environment for a good standard of living. The discussant indicated that indicators to measure standards of living include life expectancy, rate of stunting among children and immunization.

As a way forward, the discussant suggested that poverty alleviation as a prerequisite to dealing with the problems that the vulnerable are facing. However, the vulnerable should participate and exercise choice in identifying and implementing development strategies. Political will and good governance, locally and internationally, are necessary for economic growth, and economic growth creates employment, reduces inequalities and leads to expansion of voices and choices. The discussant also pointed out that it is important to invest in basic social services such as health, education and social welfare. However, the budget has to be restructured in such a way that it adequately addresses issues of social service provision. Civil society should, however, also play its part.

5.5.1 Discussion by participants

Following the presentations by Ms. Nyatsanza and Mrs. Mafico, many interesting observations were made during the discussion on the topic. It was felt that there was a need for a clear demarcation between people who can afford to pay for social services and those who cannot. Those who can afford should pay and the state can then assist the vulnerable. There was also disappointment that some noble polices are eroded; for example, some female students are enrolled at the University of Zimbabwe through affirmative action. However, there is a high drop out rate for female students due to pregnancy.

The participants also observed that the vulnerable are unable to do much for themselves because the playing field is not level. However, it was suggested that community initiatives such as zunde ramambo could be used as a strategy to alleviate the plight of the vulnerable. The vulnerable included child-headed households, and households headed by older persons who now find themselves taking up parental roles in terms of looking after orphans left behind by their children.

The participants felt that people themselves are their own agent of development. The vulnerable, such as the youths, should therefore be given as much information as possible pertaining to where they can obtain assistance.

5.5 Environment and Tourism in Zimbabwe since Independence

(P. W. Mamimine)

Dr Mamimine's presentation sought to examine the merits and demerits of the strategies adopted by Zimbabwe in 1980 to promote environmental preservation and tourism. The presenter stated that not only is tourism widely regarded as an engine for economic development in most Third World Countries, but also that it is important to create facilities that would assist in the promotion of that sector. He also emphasized the fact that tourism is an industry that thrives on the environment and that it is not enough to have state-of-the art facilities that are not backed by sound tourism and environment policies. Dr. Mamimine referred to specific landmark events in the development of tourism in Zimbabwe, namely the attainment of independence, the civil war in Matabeleland, the Unity Accord and the accelerated land reform programme. Zimbabwe's independence brought an end to the war of liberation and the insecurity that was associated with it. As a result, the number of tourists who visited Zimbabwe skyrocketed from 237,756 by the end of 1985. However, this increase in the number of tourists was cut short by the civil war in Matabeleland area due to the insecurity that prevailed in that area. The peak was when six tourists were kidnapped and killed. The signing of the Unity Accord brought these disturbances to an end and there was an increase in the number of tourists visiting Zimbabwe between 1989 and 1999. There was an increase from 320,000 in 1981 to 2,093,283 in 1999. Again there has been a decrease in the number of tourists due to the events that have been associated with the accelerated land reform. Furthermore, this had resulted in 66 registered tourism facilities closing business over the past year, resulting in loss of employment.

Dr. Mamimine's presentation also looked at the development strategies adopted to promote tourism since independence. The presenter pointed out that the first step in strategic management is the formulation of a strategic plan that spells out what and how objectives are to be achieved. However, to date, the Ministry of Environment and Tourism has not come up with a master plan despite plans to have one. This has been one of the obstacles to the full exploitation of the tourism potential in Zimbabwe. He further pointed out that although the mandate of the Zimbabwe Tourism Authority (ZTA) includes promoting Zimbabwe as a destination for tourists and to promote the tourism industry locally, in the region and overseas, this function has not been implemented due to the fact that the ZTA is seriously under-funded. As a result ZTA, has not been able to finance its foreign offices such that it had to recall its attaché from Germany and close some offices altogether.

Dr. Mamimine also argued that failure to boost domestic tourism as well the neglect of major tourist attractions such as the Great Zimbabwe has contributed to the decline of the industry. South Africa has taken advantage of these problems by marketing the Victoria Falls as its own tourist destination. Tourists are asked to come to South Africa and "we will show you the Victoria Falls".

On the issue of availability of human resources, Dr Mamimine argued that it is important to respond to the growing sophistication of tourists so that the entire tourism experience meets the expectations of the consumer. He pointed out that a dissatisfied tourist will not only avoid the destination on her/his next visit, but will also influence other potential tourists to shun the destination. It is therefore important to train staff. Zimbabwe has responded to this need by introducing an undergraduate degree programme in Tourism and Hospitality Management at the University of Zimbabwe, Midlands State University and at Chinhoyi Technical College. A postgraduate degree in the same field is on offer at the University of Zimbabwe. Dr. Mamimine further argued that the major challenge Zimbabwe faces in respect of service personnel is that the concept of hospitality is not envisaged by all who come into contact with tourists, for example immigration officials at airports.

Dr. Mamimine also referred to the issue of the important link between transport and tourism. The presenter acknowledged that Government took cognisance of this pivotal role of a good transport network and, to date, a wide network of road links places of tourist attraction not only to major cities and towns of Zimbabwe, but also to neighbouring countries. However, over time, some of these roads have been neglected for a long time. Air transport has received the greatest attention since independence. Many airports and aerodromes have been constructed and the skies have been de-regulated, resulting in the participation of many private operators. The introduction of a direct flight between Victoria Falls and London by Air Zimbabwe has been a good move. The greatest drawback, however, has been the lack of direct flights between Zimbabwe and the United States of America. Furthermore, the airports at Zimbabwe's prime tourist destinations are in a poor state and there are inadequate passenger handling facilities. The ultimate in transport development in Zimbabwe has been the construction of the multi-million dollar new Harare International Airport that is also supposed to lead to tourism boom. Due to political instability coupled with fuel shortages, this has not been possible. Furthermore, ten international airlines have so far withdrawn from Zimbabwe, citing low business.

Dr. Mamimine also noted that Zimbabwe has turned to regional integration as a strategy for developing the tourism industry. He stated that plans are at an advanced stage for South Africa, Mozambique and Zimbabwe to form a mega national park in a bid to boost tourist arrivals. The mega park to be known as the Gaza-Kruger-Gonarezhou Trans-frontier (GKG) will comprise the Krugar National Park in South Africa, Gonarezhou in Zimbabwe and an area known as Coutada 16 in Mozambique. This park will be approximately 40,000 square kilometres and is likely to be fully operational in 2003.

Dr. Mamimine also talked about the Tourism Recovery Plan as a tourism development strategy. Government set up the Tourism Recovery Task Force under the National Economic Consultative Forum on 18 July 2000 and this Force has come up with the Tourism Recovery Plan. The Tourism Recovery Task Force is intended to restore confidence in Zimbabwe as a safe destination and to motivate increased direct long haul and regional flights to Zimbabwe. The presenter pointed out that unfortunately, more than a year after its formation, the Task Force has not succeeded in spearheading the revival of the tourism sector. Dr. Mamimine also argued that the current foreign exchange rate policy was detrimental to the tourism industry.

In addition to the strategies referred to, Dr. Mamimine also indicated that Government has come up with new strategies in a bid to revive the ailing tourism industry. One of these measures is the transformation of the tourism sector from being a service industry to becoming an export sector with benefits of tax breaks and tax exemptions. Another new measure Dr. Mamimine talked about related to fuel shortages. The presenter said that the Minister of Environment and Tourism had adopted a new policy of ensuring adequate fuel supplies in all popular tourist destinations in a bid to insulate the tourism sector from the persistent fuel shortages. The last new measure Dr. Mamimine alluded to was the issue of visas. He said that there are efforts to relax visa requirements for tourists from major source markets. However, Dr. Mamimine argued that the new measures have not addressed the crux of the tourism problem and that is none other than the safety of the tourist. He pointed out that although no tourists have been targeted in the politically motivated violence in recent years, this has not stopped tourists from cancelling their travel arrangements to Zimbabwe.

Dr. Mamimine also talked about the environment and the legislation governing it. He pointed out that the environment was being governed by a myriad of Acts, most of which were promulgated well before independence, but have been ratified and amended by Government as and when deemed necessary. The presenter, however, pointed out that these Acts were in conflict with each other.

Dr. Mamimine also talked about Government of Zimbabwe's recognition of the need to develop and promote conservation practices and to encourage development on a sustainable basis. A National Conservation Strategy was subsequently developed in 1987. In 1994, the Ministry of Environment and Tourism introduced an interim Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) policy that ensures that ecological, cultural, social and economic impacts resulting from land and water use are minimized or eliminated. This has resulted in sustainable use of natural resources as well as development of eco-tourism. Under the EIA policy, development proposals are scrutinized before approval. The Minister is empowered to prescribe any activity, policy or programme which in his/her view may cause significant environmental impact or community disruption. The EIA policy has been very instrumental in furthering the cause of sustainable development and eco-tourism ventures in this country.

Dr. Mamimine also talked about the relationship between poverty and environmental preservation. He said that more than 75% of Zimbabweans live below the poverty datum line and numbers keep on rising. This poverty has been the greatest enemy to environmental conservation. Endeavours for alternative sources of energy besides firewood have not yielded positive results. Deforestation and its consequences are rampant in communal lands, which, owing to colonial legacy in general, are over-populated. Land invasions have also been a threat to the environment because of rampant poaching and deforestation through indiscriminately cutting down trees.

Dr. Mamimine identified the following strategies as the way forward:

Dr. Mamimine pointed out that the major reason why most efforts to resuscitate the tourism sector have failed is that the strategies adopted have been implemented in isolation from other economic and political fundamentals. What is therefore required is an integrative approach to problem- solving regarding the tourism industry in particular and the economy in general.

In conclusion, Dr. Mamimine said that the way forward for the tourism industry in Zimbabwe lies principally in cleaning up the country's image which has been negatively affected by what is perceived to be the excesses in land acquisition and redistribution. Land acquisition should be implemented in an orderly, peaceful and transparent manner. The problem of fuel shortages should also be addressed.

6.5.1 Discussant's remarks

Ms. S. D. Chingarande, discussant to Dr. Mamimine' presentation, said that tourism is predatory to environment and that tourism is therefore destroying itself. An example of environmental depletion was the cutting down of trees. The discussant added that poverty was also contributing to the depletion of resources. She further added that for as long as there is poverty, natural resources such as trees will be depleted. High population growth rates also cause environmental degradation.

As a way forward, Ms. Chingarande suggested that laws that contradict should be regularised. She called for the inclusion of social scientists in tackling issues related to environmental preservation because this is not a domain only for the hard sciences.

5.5.2 Discussion by participants

Several issues were raised concerning the environment and tourism in Zimbabwe. Firstly, it was felt that E.I.A were not being carried out, for instance, around the Save River, and the effect has been land degradation. The speaker felt that monitoring, evaluation and enforcement should be part of Environment Impact Assessment, otherwise the nation will be courting disaster.

Floor discussions also reflected concern about the role of industries in environmental degradation. It was felt that the industries were the worst culprits in terms of environmental degradation, compared to stream-bank cultivation and tree cutting.

Participants were also of the view that tourism should be a means to human development, and not an end in itself. However, the challenge raised was how tourism can work for the people. On a related note, there were comments that the poor were not benefiting from tourism. The view expressed was that what we see is the application of the dependency theory whereby payments by tourists to international hotels are made from the West and profits kept, whilst poverty and environmental degradation took place in Third World countries. Furthermore, it was felt that globalisation was upon us and that Zimbabwe therefore has to be ready for the competition associated with it.

5.6 Agricultural Development in Zimbabwe since Independence and the Way Forward

Mr. Mombeshora's presentation started off by categorically stating that when the white settlers arrived in 1890, there were traditional agriculturalists dating back some 2000 years. The farmers who grew a wide variety of crops practiced shifting cultivation. Mombeshora further stated that the British South Africa Company (BSAC) established rule over Southern Rhodesia in 1890 and its rule lasted for about 25 years. This is the period when land appropriation by whites started and it also marked the birth of the dual agrarian structure that exists today. Reserves were located in the remote and drier parts of the country and by 1913, a total of 104 Native Reserves varying from 2,024 ha to 607,287 ha had been established. From then onwards, several acts of Parliament were passed in order to consolidate the colonial government's objectives on agriculture. These included:

However, it was the Land Apportionment Act of 1931 that formalized the dual agrarian structure. Mombeshora further indicated that institutions that shaped the evolution of Zimbabwe's agrarian structure also began to emerge. For instance the BSAC directors visited the country and launched the white agricultural policy, which promoted commercial farming. A department of agriculture was set up in 1908 to implement agricultural policy for white commercial farmers. The first research stations in the country were established in 1909 at Gwebi and Harare. Rhodes, Nyanga and Matopos were acquired in 1917. No support was rendered to smallholder agriculture, and this situation continued up to 1980.

Mombeshora spelt out that Southern Rhodesia became a self-governing colony in 1924 and that this period of self-rule (1924 - 1965) was characterized by huge investments in physical social infrastructure for the white areas. These included the establishment of state agricultural marketing and control boards. These developments which took place in the 1930s and 1940s were prime movers of the agricultural production revolution on the large-scale commercial farms, starting in the 1950s with tobacco as a major export crop. Smallholder agriculture was, however, ignored. In addition, further support to the white agricultural sector came through the 1933 Danzing Commission. This Commission was appointed to examine the economic position of the agricultural industry amid the world depression of the 1930s. This Commission recommended that government subsidies and support for white agriculture as a matter of survival of the white community. The global depression set the stage for an all-embracing state intervention. For example, from 1935 to 1956, a 50% subsidy plus free technical support programme was launched to allow white farmers to build soil and water conservation works. From 1936 to 1944, agriculture was declared a controlled industry. Government controlled the prices, international trade as well as the area and sale of tobacco, and extended subsidies to white farmers.

Mr. Mombeshora referred to the 1953 Federation of Nyasaland and Rhodesia. He indicated that the Federal government, acting on recommendations of a 1958 Select Committee, actually started to amend the Land Apportionment Act in order to increase the amount of land for blacks by extending the special native reserves and by creating a category of non-racial (unreserved) land. White conservatives did not like the idea and, in an all white election, fought on the land issue, and the Rhodesian Front won, thus restoring the Land Apportionment Act and freezing the unreserved category of land. In 1965, the Rhodesian Front Party declared an illegal Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom (UK). The UK and the United Nations (UN) imposed sanctions on Rhodesia. Government immediately instituted measures to reduce dependency on tobacco through crop diversification schemes. Agriculture continued to be the most import foreign exchange earner. The agricultural sector survived UDI largely through government support, although in the 1970s large-scale agriculture became less and less profitable.

Mombeshora stated that at independence, Zimbabwe inherited an agricultural sector characterised by two different systems, namely, the commercial sector exclusively for the whites and the communal areas for blacks. The commercial sector had access to better and larger pieces of land compared to the blacks. The new government maintained the dual agrarian structure of commercial and communal farms, but significantly increased government assistance to the communal sector. Mombeshora argued that at independence, a land resettlement programme was initiated to buy time on the land reform programme. The new government maintained the colonial government is cheap food policy and actually increased food subsidies during the first few years of independence, with tax rebates given for some basic food items. Government introduced new legislation on minimum wage, which in turn increased the demand for manufactured food items.

Mombeshora pointed out that Government's "Growth with Equity" policy statement recognized the need to redress the inequalities of land distribution along racial lines. To address this, Government aimed to achieve the following goals:

Mombeshora indicated that the reform of the inherited agricultural structures has been pursued through two main programmes, namely, land redistribution through resettlement and the redirection of support services to the communal areas. Mombeshora identified some prime movers considered important for the development of agriculture in Zimbabwe. These included:

In addition to the above strategies, Mr. Mombeshora's presentation also referred to the indigenisation polices on agriculture and the impact on production to expand black participation and benefits to the country's development process. Government set up a National Investment Trust to act as a vehicle for the empowerment of indigenous people. As a result, smallholder agriculture expanded rapidly in the early 1980s. Black farmers increased maize and cotton production dramatically. Mr. Mombeshora's presentation also made reference to the horticultural industry, which he said had been the fastest growing agricultural sub-sector in Zimbabwe, and it consists of both large-scale commercial farmers and smallholder farmers. However, the presenter argued that commercial horticulture development has been limited to mostly large-scale farming areas because of the need for expensive inputs.

Mr. Mombeshora suggested the following as the way forward:

5.6.1 Discussant's remarks

The discussant, Dr. Masiiwa, highlighting the points raised in Mombeshora's presentation, said that the question of land conflict has always been there historically and that people had a way of dealing with these conflicts. The discussant felt that there was a need to develop capacities for dealing with such conflicts.

The discussant further pointed out that with support Africans can also perform as well as the whites that came as soldiers, but can become successful farmers only with the correct support.

The discussant thought that there was a need for developing international linkages in agriculture and this called for skills and shrewdness. Research aimed at improving the agricultural sector is also necessary. So also is a national consensus on land reform.

5.6.2 Discussions by participants

During floor discussions, it was pointed out that urban agriculture should be promoted and made sustainable. However, it was pointed out that there is a need for a proper policy at the national level.

On the issue of land reform, smallholder productivity should be improved through maximum use of land and by rendering the necessary support.

Concern was expressed regarding food security. It was felt that there was too much emphasis on horticultural exports, thus compromising food security. Lack of infrastructure and lack of political commitment manifested through inadequate budget allocation to the smallholder farmer also contributed to food insecurity.

5.7 Educational Provision in Zimbabwe: Issues and Challenges

(C. M. Nherera)

Dr. Nherera's presentation was tabled, as he was unable to attend the workshop. The paper examined the issues and challenges in the provision of education in Zimbabwe. In his paper, Dr. Nherera states that before independence, the majority of African children were denied access to education throughout the colonial period. Access to education was deliberately compromised; most parents could not afford the school fees and other school costs. At independence, democratisation of access to education became one of the key policy priorities of the new government. Accordingly, government embarked on a massive expansion of education facilities. Government invested heavily in this sector and this resulted in a phenomenal increase in enrolments. Primary education was made free to enable children from lower socio-economic backgrounds to attend school as well. By 1990, most of the quantitative expansion of the education system has taken place and focus changed to improvement of the quality of educational provision.

Dr. Nherera pointed out that in spite of the massive expansion of the education sector since independence, access, equity and quality of educational provision continue to persist. Dr. Nherera further elaborated by stating that access to education is still restricted amongst children from low socio-economic backgrounds, farming areas and other remote parts of the country. Furthermore, rural district council day schools tend to be poor, whilst high-fee-paying private schools have superior facilities and staff.

To illustrate the issues of equity, access and quality of educational provision in Zimbabwe, Dr. Nherera made a specific reference to the Early Child Education and Care (ECEC). The presenter pointed out that ECEC was not included in the massive expansion of educational facilities that took place soon after independence. However, notable progress has been made particularly in rural and communal areas. The provision of ECEC, however, remains voluntary and it is not a prerequisite for pupils starting formal primary school. Most of the ECEC centres operating in Zimbabwe are not registered with the Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture and statistics regarding the number of centres, enrolments, staffing and funding tend to be unreliable. Dr. Nherere argued that in spite of notable progress in access to ECEC, statistics show that access remains extremely limited. It continues to be the most neglected sector in educational provision and it is children from a low socio-economic background who are most deprived of the early intellectual stimulation due to lack of access to ECEC centres. In addition, rural ECEC centres are generally poorly equipped, have inadequate buildings facilities, lack suitable playground equipment and are serviced by untrained or under-trained teachers.

Dr. Nherera also referred to access to primary education in order to illustrate the issue of access to education. The presenter indicated that school enrolment increased from 819,586 in 1979 to 1,235,994 the following year. By 1985 enrolment had increased to 2,216,878 and rose further to 2,482,577 by 1995. In 1998, enrolment stood at 2,509,153. However, enrolment dropped to 2,488,939 in 1999. Dr. Nherera further pointed out that 15% of children of primary school going age remain out of school, while a further 21% of those who start school drop out before completing Grade 7. Thirty per cent of those who complete the primary school cycle do not proceed to secondary education.

The presenter highlighted the fact that there is gender balance in terms of access to primary education. In 1996, enrolment in primary school by gender was 49.24% for girls and 50.76% for boys. The number of primary schools has also increased from 2,401 in 1979 to 4,234 by 1985. By 1999, there were 4,723 primary schools. In line with the expansion of the number of schools, the number of teachers has increased almost proportionately, from 28,455 in 1980 to 63,718 by 1996. By 1998, the number of teachers had risen to 66,502, but dropped to 59,973 in 1999. During this expansion, the number of trained teachers also grew. During the mid-1980s, over 60% of primary school teachers were untrained. Over the years this situation has improved steadily and today less than 20% of teachers are untrained.

Regarding access to secondary education, Dr. Nherera states that the rate of expansion was even higher than that of primary school level. Enrolment increased from 66,215 in 1979 to 148,690 by 1981. In 1995, enrolment had increased to 786,154 and further rose to 806,126 in 1997. Enrolment has levelled off since mid-1980 when the government changed its focus from quantitative expansion to improvement of quality of secondary education. Along side the increase of enrolment in secondary schools, there was an increase in the number of secondary schools themselves. The number of secondary schools increased from 177 in 1979 to 694 in 1981, an increase of 292.10% in three years. By 1985 there were 1,215 secondary schools, rising to 1,512 by 1990 and 1,531 by 1997. The presenter noted that most of the expansion took place in rural areas that had been neglected throughout the colonial period. Transition from primary to secondary school also improved from approximately 28% in 1980 to 85% by the mid-1980s, and has since settled at about 70%.

Dr. Nherera, however, argued that in spite of the phenomenal expansion of the education sector after independence, access to secondary education remains inadequate in some parts of the country, whilst some schools opened after independence are under-utilized. Urban schools have become congested with children coming from rural areas where they have lost faith in district council schools whose infrastructure has not improved. Access to secondary education has also been compromised by the harsh economic climate that has made it difficult or impossible for many parents to afford school fees and other related costs. Furthermore, the girl-child is particularly disadvantaged in terms of access to secondary education. Currently, only 46.18% girls are in school, compared to 53.82% boys. This is in spite of the fact that the last census reflected that there were more females than males in the country.

In summing up his presentation, Dr. Nherera argued that in spite of the impressive expansion of educational service provision after independence, issues of access, equity and quality still remain problematic especially in remote areas, commercial and settlement areas. Dr Nherera further pointed out that areas that had been left out during the period of rapid expansion of educational services continue to receive limited resources and are characterized by the highest percentage of children not in school, especially at higher levels such as secondary schools. Failure to attend school is due to inability to pay school fees by parents and guardians. The Social Dimension Fund (SDF) introduced to minimize negative effects of ESAP had not adequately met the needs of children from low socio-economic backgrounds. This in part has led to noticeable escalation of high dropout rates from school, particularly at secondary school level. Research has shown that failure to met school fees has been the main reason for withdrawal from school. Drought experienced during the 1990's also contributed to the withdrawal of children from school. For younger children aged between 6 years and 8 years, long distance to schools has also been a deterrent.

The prevalence of high fee private schools for the elite has meant that while pupils in all schools might be following the same curriculum, children from affluent families who attend these resource-rich schools stand a better chance of passing their examinations than those from poor families and attending poorly resourced schools. Therefore, children from poor backgrounds are hardly able to break out of the poverty trap.

Dr. Nherera also identified the dwindling budget allocation to the education sector as a factor that has compromised access. He pointed out that budget allocation remained fairly high throughout the 1980s. During the period 1979/1980 to 1980/1981, expenditure on education alone rose from 14% of total Government recurrent expenditure to 23% in the two-year period. Although the allocation fell slightly to 17% in the 1983/1984, the proportion of total government expenditure remained fairly high during the 1980s (over 20% of the national budget). But since the inception of ESAP, Government's expenditure on education has been declining in terms of real per capita spending. The decline in the Zimbabwe Dollar has also contributed to this problem. In spite of the reduced budget allocation to education, Dr. Nherera emphasised that the levels of GNP allocated to this sector in Zimbabwe remained among the highest in Sub-Saharan Africa.

In his paper, Dr. Nherera, also referred to the 1998 Presidential Commission of Inquiry into Education and Training set up by the government to investigate how educational provision can be improved in Zimbabwe.

In conclusion, Dr. Nherera stated that Zimbabwe had made great strides towards increasing access to education and improving its quality even before the 1995 World Summit for Social Development that stipulated the need to promote and attain the goals of universal and equitable access to quality education. However, Dr. Nherera argued that with the introduction of ESAP and globalisation, the gains that had been achieved have been undermined.

5.7.1 Discussant's remarks

Dr. Zwana, discussant to Dr. Nherera's paper, pointed to the issue of access. He outlined the reasons attributed to the compromised access to ECEC primary and secondary school education before and after independence. Post-independence strategies to increase access to education such as the Social Dimension Fund were referred to as well. The discussant highlighted the shortcomings of this Fund, including the fact that national budget allocation to education has been on the down spiral since the advent of the Economic Structural Adjustment Programme in 1990.

The discussant felt that due to the nature of the topic at hand, the presenter should have included possible solutions to the problems discussed. Regarding the 1999 Nziramasanga Report of the Presidential Commission of Inquiry into Education and Training, the discussant was of the view that the presenter should have shared with the audience a summary of the recommendations put forward by the Commission. The discussant also felt that there was no intention stated nor was it implicit that tertiary education was not going to be addressed. It was further felt that the topic did not warrant this exclusion, especially because, normally, education is considered in the three segments, namely, primary, secondary and tertiary. Thus the presenter was expected to venture into the area unless specified otherwise.

In conclusion, the discussant was of the view that the presenter had made a very germane observation that the findings of the Commission had the thrust of providing a "milestone" in the enhancement of education and training in the country. He further stated that though the Report does not seem to have been officially endorsed by the President, the presenter should have shared his ideas about the significance of the findings in light of the issues and challenges that he has discussed. He had the opportunity to make a case as to what the system is missing as a result of non-implementation of the Nziramasanga Report.

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