2. SUMMARY OF PAPERS PRESENTED
This section summarizes the presentations and discussions of the workshop papers by scholars drawn from public and private universities in Kenya.
(K. M. Khanna)
The first paper by Prof. Khanna of Moi University entitled Scientific and Industrial Research and Development in Kenya contends that scientific and industrial research must progress simultaneously and that industrial research cannot be done without a strong base in the basic science research. He notes that the discoveries of the basic sciences are utilized in industrial research, and both are utilized in industrial production. He observes that curiosity-driven research is called science, and the application of the scientific discoveries to development is called technology. He stressed that there is no such thing as disconnected science and technology. Nonetheless, he counsels that developing the connections between science and technology demands great skills.
The author goes further to state that scientific research results in inventions and that technological efforts lead to innovations. These days, society demands a quick correlation between invention and innovation such that society at large or humanity would benefit from the interaction between science and technology. He contends that a by-product of the interaction between science and technology is industrialization, and this is a must for any nation that wants to enhance its potential and riches. The target set for Kenya for industrialization is 2020. The efforts towards industrialization can lead to socio-economic transformation resulting in prosperity. Basic requirements for this are the development of novel materials, the establishment of industries that may use these novel materials, the development of steel industry and special steel for nuclear and fusion reactors, the development of super-conducting materials and super-conducting power plants as well as photovoltaic technology, to mention only a few.
The paper further contends that scientists will have to decide on the thrust area of industrialization that will lead to socio-economic progress. Thrust area of industrialization will demand the establishment of basic, medium and heavy industries. It is suggested that to achieve the goal of industrialization, scientists at industrial research institutes will have to divide the industrial progress into phases of approximately five years. In the first phase, research institutions will have to be established which are of relevance or capable of strengthening the existing ones, and then establish basic industries that will act as feeder industries to the medium and heavy industries. In the third and fourth phases, heavy industries will have to be established and simultaneously, the know-how developed by science and the research institutions will have to be utilized.
Nonetheless, it should be remembered that, using primitive methods or primitive social structures and time- and resources-wasting devices of the past couldn't achieve modern industrialization. There is, therefore, the need for developing fast decision-taking skills and changing the working habits of people.
The paper laments further that the current international standards are set by the developed nations. Hence, unless the quality of scientific research and industrial products comes up to the standards set by them, it is not recognized. Thus, the scientists and technologists in Kenya will have to work hard to raise the standards to match them with the international standards.
In conclusion, the paper notes that Kenyan scientists and technologists will have to establish quality assurance laboratories with the latest equipment and know-how. Once this is done, the goods produced in Kenya can compete in the world market - an important requirement for economic transformation in Kenya.
Comments and questions were raised on Prof. Khanna's presentation. The issues raised by participants were that Prof. Khanna's paper did not adequately discuss the role of social scientists in the whole scientific and industrial process of development. It was noted that Kenya had set the year 2020 to achieve technological development. Yet, the paper did not discuss the trends in political and socio-economic development and how these trends could affect the desired technological development.
Responding to the issues raised, Prof. Khanna argued that the physical scientists and the social scientists need to create a conducive working relationship in order to overcome the technological challenges brought about by rapidly changing political and socio-economic landscape in the country.
(James Kisaka Waswa)
The second paper by Dr. Waswa of Kenyatta University was entitled The Role of Research and Education in Health Delivery System in Kenya. It argues that research is a vital tool for health and development. The paper contends that health research provides basic information on the state of health and disease in the population. In this regard, it provides tools to prevent and cure illnesses and investigate their effects and it attempts to provide better approaches of health care for the individual and the community.
However, the paper regrets that health research has been taken for granted by many individuals and institutions, particularly in developing countries such as Kenya. It has falsely been perceived to be a domain for dons and researchers in higher learning institutions as well as in research institutes. The author stresses that research is a necessary undertaking at all levels and should be taken seriously at national, institutional and individual levels for knowledge enhancement, health improvement, health sustainability and general development.
He pointed out that knowledge is developed as a product of research; this has been shown to contribute immensely to better health and development. The paper laments that it is unfortunate that those areas that need the most have very few research scientists. For example, Latin America, Africa and the Middle East have just about 13% of the world's scientists between them, with a particularly acute shortage of research capability for non-communicable diseases. This is an emerging major health problem, which requires intervention at the health policy level.
The author concludes by suggesting that there is a great need for strengthening, promoting, and ensuring the support and sustenance of research at all levels in the health sector and related areas for better health of the Kenyan citizens and for general development. There is little doubt that, taken in its true perspective, health research is a necessary and vital undertaking at all levels in the health care and delivery systems.
Health research coupled with well-planned and coordinated health and continuing education is surely an investment for development. Health research is not only an individual concern but also a national and international prerogative.
The paper concludes by echoing the World Health Organization's (WHO 1996) view that the creation and utilization of information at all levels in the health delivery system is a prerequisite for a well performing health care system and thus for the enhancement of the well-being of all citizens.
The participants were unanimous in their views that Dr. Waswa had adequately discussed the topic and set an agenda for the quality makers on health to work in line with the prescriptions of the WHO in an attempt to enhance the well being of all citizens.
(Kitula King'ei)
The third paper by Prof. Kitula King'ei of Kenyatta University en-titled Language in Social Research in Africa in the 21st Century contends that Africa's development in the next millennium will be research driven. The paper agues that it is through various forms of socio-cultural and economic investigation that vital data will be obtained, processed, analysed and interpreted in order to arrive at sound and well-informed decisions and policies that will govern development in all facets of society.
However, the paper cautions that it is important to appreciate the fact that research is a social enterprise and that it entails the use of language for communication.
The issue of language is crucial especially given the fact that most of Africa is still rural and illiterate in the Western sense. This means that face-to-face verbal communication is the only form of dialogue that the trained researcher will, for many years to come, have to employ in this continent to obtain the sought information and to finally attain the sought goals in research exercise. Indeed, this is the only approach or method through which the scientist and the administrator will seek to influence and, as far as possible, change the social or collective behaviour and outlook of the masses and direct them towards the envisaged development.
It is, therefore, the contention of this paper that to date, development research in Africa has failed to make meaningful contributions to the quality of life for the majority of the people mainly because the whole theory and practice is still rooted in, derived from and shrouded in Western ideology and idiom. Although it is an indisputable historical fact that the European languages are part and parcel of Africa's heritage, it is also imperative to recognize that these languages are, to the majority of the ordinary people of this continent, both foreign and unfathomable.
This fact has to be borne in the mind of every social researcher and communicator because language is not just a neutral instrument for conveying meaning but a loaded and often a culturally objective system of reflecting people's total worldly outlook. Therefore, language becomes a symbol of the common belief and psychological makeup of the community from which it springs.
On the whole, the paper attempts to discuss the importance of paying attention to details of language and culture and the process of social communication in carrying out research. It has shown research as a form of social enterprise that makes use of various linguistic and cultural concerns.
The paper stresses that formation of conceptualisation is a culture-bound process and therefore, objectivity, validity and reliability of the findings in social inquiry depend on the ability of the researchers to understand and operate effectively within the laid down confines of culture and language. The close semblance between habits in language use and thought process on the one hand and that between socio-cultural organizational mechanisms and the nature of human language on the other has been drawn.
In conclusion, the thrust of the discussion was that, the conceptual problems (in social research) of language couldn't be readily resolved by the exclusive use of just one language. This calls for close attention to local languages and dialects. The paper concludes by stressing that, in social science research, just as in any other social inquiry, language must be at the core of the formation of the discourse.
The participants on Prof. King'ei's presentation made several comments. Most of these comments were hinged on the omission of the paper to discuss how Kenya, with about 42 local dialects, would carry out meaningful research using local languages.
In response, he reiterated that, with the current district focus for rural development, using the language and culture common to a larger area, rather than relying on Western languages, would overcome the problems.
(Paul A. Ogula)
The fourth paper by Dr. Paul A. Ogula of Catholic University of Eastern Africa entitled The Role of Research in the Education Reform in Kenya contends that research is important in the planning of the social, political and economic development of Kenya. The paper examines the main roles that research can play in the current education reform process in Kenya and presents research as a vehicle by which Kenya's education system can be improved. Furthermore, the paper discusses the factors that constrain educational research and suggests some strategies and activities that should be undertaken to promote educational research in Kenya.
The paper notes that since independence the supply of formal education has been a major concern of Kenyans. This is because education is the vehicle which determines access to work, provides social equity and allows the understanding about the system of governance, and provides the training of competitive labour force as well as the reduction of social problems.
Education reform is the process of changing the education system for better by adding, deleting and altering contents. In the past, many changes have taken place in the Kenyan system, which culminated in the introduction of the 8-4-4 system of education in 1985. In recent times the 8-4-4 system has been accused of having failed in fulfilling its original mission. A commission of inquiry into the education system was established to review and reform the education system with a view to preparing today's young people in such a way that they will be able to cope with the demands of the 21st century.
The paper concludes by noting that the government and universities have a central role to play in promoting adequate financing for educational reform and in ensuring that non-governmental organizations and the private sector also contribute to such financing. On their part, researchers are expected to identify priorities in the various spheres of the country's education and to contribute to the social and economic transformation of Kenya.
There were comments and questions raised on Dr. Ogula's paper in order to improve it. The first concern was on how social scientists could play an active role in the educational transformation given that education in Kenya is centralized. The second was that the paper did not focus on how the whole contentious issue of research funding in education would be met: Who really sets the educational research agenda in Kenya?
In response, Dr. Ogula concurred with the views of the participants that social scientists are hardly consulted in applied research and that the issue of funding needs to be reviewed.
(Owen O. MacOnyango)
The fifth paper by Mr. Owen O. MacOnyango of Maseno University College entitled Deifying Science, Defying Arts: Africa's Tough Choice for the 21st Century strove to bring into focus the misconceptions that science and technology hold the great solution to the problems of the Third World in general and Africa in particular. The paper attempts to demonstrate that the contest for the pride of place between Science and Arts is not new and that although science and technology will readily be prescribed for Africa by both outsiders and Africans alike, in the so called advanced or developed countries, the wisdom of synthesizing the two aspects of knowledge is what feeds their celebrated experience, which, where one aspect was allowed to override, the regrets would be painful to the extreme.
The paper argues that a state of development that is pursued from the angle of science per se will in the end turn out to be that the development was based on a false premise in the first place. It is the contention of the paper that the danger of excluding the testimony of the arts (humanitarian) in development should be exposed.
The paper poses such questions as: Which Development for Africa? Is Technology the New Magic? And where do the Arts come from? From the impression of the difficult choices that Africa has to make, whichever path is chosen, choices are what they are. There is always a cost in a choice. The paper argues that the guiding factor is, therefore, the degree of cost. Unemployment, environmental depletion, abject poverty and a myriad of other calamities may overemphasize the importance of science and technology to development but at a very high cost since the question to do with the human face in development will remain unanswered. Science and technology form just one dimension of development and not the main one. They may play an important role but by no means the end. On the other hand, the arts when considered in a development without science and technology as ingredients will be rather an unfinished form of arts; the development itself would be of little worth. The cost attached to such a choice would again be too high.
Despite the above dilemma, there are so many crises that drive humanity towards quick, and therefore, simple, even simplistic solutions. Economic uncertainties, diseases hitherto unknown, population explosion in parts of the world and a myriad of other threatening situations are tempting humanity to overemphasize certain modes of knowledge seen as holding readily utilizable answers. Science and technology, in many instances at the expense of other ways of thinking, are increasingly being seen as solution banks.
Nonetheless, the paper concludes it can be agreed that societies have survived through epochs with neither more challenges nor more prospects, depending on the choices made regarding the part of development. The downing millennium can be one of hope for Africa if the tough choices are faced up and the right ones made. The proposal here is that Africa will multiply her chances of success by singing all the verses of the song, not just the one of science, technology and industrialization, but also the ones that give Africa her character, her being the ones to do with her personality. The complete verses are where science is taken seriously and African Acts and Culture fully recognized.
Participants raised a number of questions on Mr. MacOnyango's presentation. First, the paper did not overtly demonstrate how science and arts should be jointly utilized in the developmental process. Second, the paper tended to emphasize the high cost of scientific development rather than examine the angle of the human face to technological development. Third, the major concern of the whole paper was how the physical scientists and social scientists alike, in an attempt to bring about meaningful holistic development, could exploit the political and economic circumstances and the low technological base of the country.
In response, MacOnyango clarified the issues raised and concluded that science and arts were bedfellows in development.
(Roselyn Lung'aho)
The sixth paper by Dr. Roselyn Lung'aho of Moi University entitled The Role of Research in the Search for Ideology for the Women's Movement in Kenya contends that the Kenyan public has tended to assume a one-to-one association between women's advocacy for gender equity and a lopsided definition of feminism which narrows the concept down to its radical-separatist/male-exclusion perspective. This view presumes the Kenyan women's movement to be defensive. The movement's leadership has not been able to mount effective defence because the movement lacks a cohesive theoretical construct defining its principles and practices. In the absence of such a construct, it is difficult to explain the movement's aims and vision; and to distinguish such aims and vision from the lopsided view of feminism.
In the paper, the author argues that, the assumed "cross-cultural nature/universality" of the Euro-American feminism is a fallacy because women in all global cultures are not uniformly subordinated and their emancipators' ideologies need not be identical - the equation of femaleness with western feminism should not arise.
The author notes the urgent need for the Kenyan women's movement to clarify the specific points of interaction with, but above all the specific points of divergence from, the so-called international feminism, if progress is to be expected. The findings from the author of OSSREA's research project revealed various conceptualisations, most of which defer significantly from the Western feminist understanding of the concept of the empowerment of women. The empowerment of women is defined as women's effective participation in the development process. This means that people are closely involved in the economic, social, cultural and political processes that affect their lives.
Of these four levels of participation, the respondents in the OSSREA project demonstrated a clear understanding of their roles at the household level. The respondents included women from different levels of education and different careers. As opposed to Western feminist perspectives, the study population stressed the essence of the woman's role as a wife and mother in the family and home. The Western feminists generally view the traditional role of women as the very manifestation of oppression, and the household as the basic unit of the patriarchal system.
In the African context, women's performances at the basic level become a creation for the other levels. This is a complex association, which the Kenyan women's movement must endeavour to address.
The general view of women's participation at the economic levels tends to be restricted to production. The need for ownership and inheritance of property is one of the indicators of such awareness. The major limitations in the respondents' conceptualisation of equality involve women's political participation. The idea of women's leadership in Kenya is generally a modest one, restricted to other areas outside politics. On the whole, the conceptualisation of gender equality emerging from the study demonstrated some levels of awareness, variation in conceptualisation, as well as political limitations.
The author concludes that the essence of any form of emancipation remains the creation of a better society. A society characterized by polar or binary gender relations does not meet the definition of "better". African women may be eager to support a movement involved in a struggle with African men as opposed to a movement waging war against men. The author cautions that this conclusion may sound paradoxical, but wonders whether the struggle between kinsmen and kinswomen should be the end result, which is supposed to be in harmony as opposed to in conflict.
The following comments and suggestions were made on Dr. Lung'aho's presentation. First, the paper did not adequately focus on the theme of the workshop. It would have been expected that women's movement should attempt to solve the myriad developmental problems facing the country. Second, the author of the paper was not clear on how a society characterized by polar and binary gender relations fails to meet the expectations of a better society.
In response, Dr. Lung'aho emphasised the need for concerted efforts between women and men in order to bring about meaningful development and a better Kenyan society.
(Maurice N. Amutabi)
The seventh paper by Mr. Maurice N. Amutabi of Moi University entitled Development Research and Public Administration in Kenya: Assessing the Unexplored Potential examined the issue of development research and public administration in Kenya vis-à-vis its performance and efficacy. The author of the paper contends that much of what constitutes policy formulation and implementation in Kenya is based more on spontaneity than on clear-cut, international and purposive planning. Scanty attention is given to research and development (R&D) as important ingredients of the developmental process.
In the North, R&D is a very significant component of the developmental process. Many of these countries spend a significant amount of their fiscal potential on research, and they have been able to experience an immense breakthrough in discoveries, inventions and innovations.
It has been argued by many that Africa, and the developing world in general, does not need to spend so much money for research as if wanting to reinvent the wheel. Proponents of such a view have been of the opinion that Africa should spend more money on acquiring the already available technology from the North and from South-east Asia. The notion has been that such technology is easily available and just there for the taking. Such notions have also, of course, suffered from the assumption that technological research findings can be shared readily.
The author argues that this assumption is grossly wrong. He contends that development is very wide and encompasses a whole spectrum of political, technological, economic, social, cultural and environmental issues. It is holistic in its outlook and approach.
The author points out that most African governments are positive towards social science research that is applied and useful, the research that potentially offers an answer to questions that bother the government's decision-makers. They require fine and finished (digestible) research that can be used immediately. There is less undertaking of basic research, one that requires excursions, field interviews, statistical tabulations and analysis, and the pros and cons of research.
The paper discusses the grey areas of public administration of Kenya that are wanting as far as proper management is concerned and which are in need of being investigated in order to be reactivated. The author points out that much of the research problem in Kenya has to do with the history of Kenya's bureaucracy and the suspicious nature under which research has been perceived. Having inadequate structures and institutions has made many government functionaries to see research as faultfinding, and generally as unveiling weaknesses. This need not be the case since good policy formulation and implementation has to emanate from research. In fact, development research and public administration in Kenya are supposed to be intimately and intricately intertwined, as is the case in the developed countries.
However, since civil servants cannot do research themselves, the services of the researchers become handy. Yet, because of too much academic jargon inherent in scholarly researches, the bureaucrats are reluctant to use such findings as they find them difficult to understand. There also exists suspicion between government officials and ardent critics of the government, at times for its own sake, while the academics see the bureaucrats as being responsible for the public malady and decay.
From the foregoing, it is clear that the paper makes a great effort to place developmental research at the centre of public service functioning. It has also emerged that research is a holistic process that is supposed to involve the whole societal fabric to be meaningful. The researchers are part of the policy making process, and implicitly reject the top-down moderates of social reforms in favour of something much more like bottom-up actions.
In conclusion, the paper contends that a researcher who engages in any policy-oriented research or any research capable of being used in a political context cannot stand aside from power structures and institutions. The author points out that we cannot avoid taking sides, since we must look at the matter from one point of view despite the fact that the decision about whose side we are on is a political act.
The participants were impressed with Mr. Amutabi's presentation. However, several questions ensued on the substantive facts of the paper. First, the participants were not clear on how the research output of social scientists would inform the decision making process in a context where the social scientists are hardly engaged in policy research. Second, the pragmatism of the bottom-up approach to development at the decision-making level was questioned given a society like Kenya where all policy decisions are top-to-bottom. "How are social scientists expected to bring about the advocated holistic development in a lopsided decision making context?"
In response, Mr. Amutabi urged social scientists not to give up their quest for knowledge generation and to practise their professional calling despite the harsh economic and political landscape in the country.
(Kenneth Inyani Simala)
The eighth paper by Mr. Kenneth Inyani Simala of Maseno University College entitled Research, Communication and National Development in Kenya contends that since research in every field is the demand of the day, progress in particular, and development in general are directly linked to research. Indeed, current problems of development necessitate purposeful and sustained research effort. The author of the paper notes that as Kenya moves towards the new millennium, it is confronted with great challenges on how to ensure a more sustainable way of living. As elsewhere in the world, there is an emerging school of thought in Kenya that believes in the ability of research to cure past problems and provide a new path of growth and prosperity.
The author argues that because of the overwhelming need for development in this country, the Kenyan society will have to find a new and responsible way forward. He contends that the task of accomplishing growth and development requires such daunting issues as economic changes in organizations and environmental management. Apart from these, there is also the need for effective planning. Obviously, all the services and products provided should be based on realistic research.
The author notes that research is a vast and multi- dimensional concept whose meaning an ordinary definition cannot project completely. However, despite the barred explanations, the term has come to mean a careful enquiry and endeavour to discover new ideas by specific studies. In this perspective, research should be seen as an essential and powerful ingredient of development.
As a way forward, the author notes that the Kenyan Government has launched an ambitious plan to address the development problems. The shift in Government policy to the district focus for rural development identified integrated rural development as a holistic strategy for addressing multi-faceted development concerns.
Several comments and questions were raised concerning Mr. Simala's presentation. First, although the paper was lauded as having been well conceived and written, it was felt that some issues were not well articulated. For instance, the shift of government policy to the district focus for rural development as a means of achieving integrated rural development should have been discussed in greater detail. Second, the paper does not offer suggestions as to how this integrated rural development could have been discussed more. Third, the paper does not offer suggestions as to how the integrated development policies should operate given that Kenya has been accused of having good policies in theory but being poor at implementing them.
In response, Mr. Simala reiterated his points by underscoring the UNESCO's 1996 policy recommendation for governments to give priority to competitive research to inspire policy and strengthen the links between outputs, policy-making and grassroot intervention strategies.
(Paul P. W. Achola)
The ninth paper by Prof. Paul P. W. Achola of Kenyatta University was entitled Parameters for the Use of Social Science Research in Public Policy and Practice: Reflections from Research in Education in Kenya. It contends that for social science research to appreciably influence socio-economic policy and practice, there has to be some interface between the activities of social scientists and those of policy makers and implementers. This interface is likely to involve a wide range of interactions ranging from any particular research projects, data collection arrangements and the writing of the research results to the dissemination of research findings. The author argues that the parameters that will influence the likelihood of any particular science influencing policy and action are ownership of the research and its findings, the language in which the research was written especially its complexities, the modalities of dissemination of the research and the policy-makers' commitment.
The author uses the above parameters to demonstrate the influence or lack of influence on social policy of some landmark researches carried out in Kenya in the field of education, which is an applied social science discipline. The author starts the discussion by pointing out that Kenya has a poorly articulated research policy. The undertaking of research by educational institutions such as the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE) and the National Council of Science and Technology (NCST) is done within the context of the rather muted research policy. The author argues further that with hardly any clear policy to guide educational research, the country has witnessed many unguided and unknown projects.
While discussing the prerequisites of enhancing interface between social research and plans of action, the author starts by addressing the issue of research ownership; he stresses that groups which are expected to use the results of social research should from the beginning be involved in the design, formulation and execution of the research projects. In this way, they are likely to feel as being integral parts of the entire research enterprise. Secondly, the author stresses that the dissemination of research findings and recommendations should involve all major stakeholders. Focus should be on the stakeholder at the national, regional, and local levels. In the case of research education, the trajectory should include the Ministry of Education's headquarters and its national organs, the provincial and district educational actors and interest groups at local or zonal levels. A related point has to do with the mode of dissemination, i.e., the medium of technology of communication and the language used. The author suggests that a better impact can be achieved if information is disseminated in written forms and in audiovisual media such as films and videos using direct and simple language.
The thrust of this paper has been that there are examples of a number of social researchers in education that have influence on public policy and practice. While in many instances such influence has been indirect and rather haphazard in time and space, there is no need for social science scholars to display differences about this chain of actions. Finally, the author of the paper gives a proposal regarding ways in which social science researchers can enhance their input in public policy and public action domains. This proposal is primarily intended to stimulate debate on the interface between research and ameliorative action targeting society.
Reacting to Prof. Achola's presentation, the participants thought the paper had adequately addressed the topic of parameters for use in social science research on public policy and practice. It was clear that for social science research to appreciably influence socio-economic policy and practice, there was a need for interface between the activities of social scientists and those of policy makers and implementers. However, the participants questioned how this would practically be achieved on the ground.
Prof. Achola responded by suggesting that serious social scientists need to change their attitude and be more aggressive in their research effort to assert their scholastic prowess and influence policy and practice.
(Elizabeth A. Were)
The tenth paper by Mrs. Elizabeth A. Were of Egerton University entitled Parameters for the Use of Social Science Research in Public Policy and Practice: Reflections from Research in Education in Kenya laments that as the 21st century approaches, the issue of street children is becoming a worrying phenomenon. She observes that not only are these children's rights being violated but also many of them are evolving into a second generation of street children who are more aggressive and more hardened.
A number of comments and questions were raised on Mrs. Were's presentation. First, the paper stresses that although research work has been carried out on street children and various strategies of eradicating the problems suggested, the population of street children is on the increase. The question is: How can the situation be controlled? Second, the paper does not adequately discuss the social, political and economic impact of street children on the entire Kenyan society and how this situation should be alleviated.
In response, Mrs. Were recommended that researchers should develop operational guidelines for efficient management of the problem of street children.
(Phoebe A. Nyawalo)
The last paper by Dr. Phoebe A. Nyawalo of Maseno University College entitled The Optimisation of Learning in the Kenyan Classroom: Perspectives for Classroom Interaction Research sends out a plea for active classroom interaction research in Kenya. The author contends that all disciplines that contribute to the knowledge used in the field of education have undergone a lot of evolution although the classroom interaction in Kenya has not changed much. The monolithic approach in the use of methodology is a permanent feature of the system, based on the assumption that having been used elsewhere in the past, it would also be appropriate for Kenya.
The author illustrates the scanty use of classroom interaction research by drawing particular attention to the cognitive function that has been downplayed in the Kenyan education system. She quotes Anderson's (1987) description of the process involved in the acquisition of cognitive skills, particularly the procedural knowledge and deductive knowledge. The latter involves the learning of facts while the former involves the learning of complex cognitive skills. This involves physical and/or mental activities such as language acquisition and driving. She further quotes Gagne (1985) who has identified the third type of cognitive process called modelling. This process includes strategies such as memorization, imitation and assimilation amongst others.
The author concludes with a plea for teachers to be mobilized, assisted and encouraged to get involved in the field of research, which involves classroom interaction.
The following questions were raised on Dr. Nyawalo's presentations. First, the paper did not clearly justify how teachers could achieve optimum learning outcomes in the Kenyan classroom context. Second, the role of research in understanding classroom dynamic was not well articulated in the paper. Third, the ideas raised in the paper were not given a local context but were exposed from external literature. Finally, the overall concern is how Kenyan researchers can improve cognitive outcomes through the optimisation of learning.
In response, Dr. Nyawalo concurred with the views of the participants and recommended that teachers should be mobilized, assisted and encouraged to get involved in the field of classroom research. The future of our children rests on the research outputs of Kenyan social science researchers.
