As said earlier, there is paucity of research on organizational commitment in relation to gender in Uganda.
Ndifuna (1992) conducted research using Makerere University lecturers. Results indicated that age positively correlated with organizational commitment whereas tenure and number of dependents negatively correlated with it. It was also observed that sex and marital status significantly influenced organizational commitment. Males showed more commitment than females whereas married lecturers showed more commitment than unmarried ones.
Etoori (1989) did an evaluation of the staff development programme at Makerere University. It was observed that the staff were of the view that Makerere did not provide motivative conditions and terms of employment, and this was largely attributed to unfavorable economic factors in the country. This is further supported by Makerere University Academic Staff Association - MUASA (1980) Memorandum to government which stated that less commitment among the staff has been due to little and inadequate pay. This has led to an exodus of Ugandan "economic" refugees to other countries, desertion from Makerere to other employment within Uganda, part-time employment of University lecturers in private sectors and hence less time of staff devoted to the University work.
Kayizzi (1990) conducted research on the predictors of job satisfaction among graduate teachers. Results indicated that female and male graduate teachers shared similar opinions on factors, which affect job satisfaction. Teachers' attrition was as a result of dissatisfaction with conditions of work, which among others include current salary, increment and payment regime.
Bagumaa (1992) found out that organizational commitment was significantly associated with reduced non-excusable absenteeism. However, this finding was interesting and expected because committed workers are less likely to withdraw from their work and they also exhibit higher levels of job performance.
Some results relating to the personal variable of sex indicated weak correlations between sex and organizational commitment (Stevens, Beyer and Trice 1978). But in their study on personal and role related factors in the development of organizational commitment, Hrebiniak and Alutto (1972) found that females were less likely to change their organisation compared to their male counterparts. Similar findings had been obtained by Grusky (1966).
Unequal representation of women in some institutions may also affect their organizational commitment. Hart, Patricia and Barrians (1988) argue that in comparison with men, women tend to be disadvantaged, wrongly or rightly, by several factors that lead to their under representation which in turn seems to influence their stereo-typic reactions from both genders. This leads to a diminishing probability of women's chances to attain top administrative positions, and this may lead to less commitment to their work.
The effects of sex roles on commitment are brought into relief by examining the research so far done on marital status.
Single employees are found to be more likely than married or separated employees to be positively disposed toward attractive employment alternatives (Hrebiniak and Alutto 1972). Their analyses of both sex and marital status further suggested that married or separated individuals especially women see greater costs attached to inter-organizational mobility. Hence they are less likely than single or male subjects to consider employment alternatives, even given inducements to do so.
Consistent results have been found for the variable of age. As age increases, organizational commitment increases. Young employees were found to be less committed to their work than older ones (Hrebiniak and Alluto 1972, Stevens et al. 1978). This is because increase in age implies increased investment into the organizations. Similar findings were discovered by Moris and Scherman (1981) who showed that older employees and those with a greater sense of competence had higher levels of organizational commitment.
Not much research has addressed the effects of the above variable on organizational commitment. However, there is some evidence that formal religious affiliation is related to the development and maintenance of occupational and organizational orientations (Thielens, 1965). Hrebiniak and Alluto (1972) also found out that religious affiliations of employees were significantly related to organizational commitment with Protestants exhibiting higher levels of commitment than Catholics or employees with other formal affiliations. These findings introduce the possibility that organizational commitment can be affected by background or pre-organizational conditions.
Increase in educational level correlates negatively with organizational commitment while those who do not plan to seek for further education become more committed. This is because highly educated employees instead become committed to their professions which increase their mobility (Dubin, Champux and Porter 1975).
Steers (1977) got a similar finding. He established that when employees have higher levels of education, it becomes more difficult for the organisation to provide sufficient rewards (as perceived by the individual) to equalize the exchange. Hence more highly educated people who also tend to be more cosmopolitan) would be less committed to their organizations and perhaps more committed to a profession or trade. Similar findings were also discovered by White (1987).
Family Size (number of economic dependents)
How heads of families strain to maintain their dependents is very important. Marsh and Mannari (1977) found out that turnover negatively correlates with number of dependents. They had assumed that turnover is the inverse of lifetime commitment norms and values. The above finding indicates that family size is more likely to correlate positively with organizational commitment.
Length of Service (tenure)
Sheldon (1971) found out that organizational commitment increases with the number of years spent in an organization. This is because length of service suggests the accumulation of organizational career. Similarly, it binds one to the organization, for example, in pension or profit-sharing plans.
Similar findings had been obtained by Grusky (1966). It is suggested that time invested in an organization becomes a valued resource in itself, while the privileges associated with length of service make it easier to derive additional organization rewards. Both Hall, Schnader and Nygren (1970) were of the same view.
Job satisfaction, according to this study, refers to the degree to which a person reports satisfaction with intrinsic features of the job (Warr, Cook and Wall 1979). Sills (1968) argued that commitment and job satisfaction are interwined and one cannot do without the other. Thus for one to be committed, there must be certain factors that guarantee satisfaction to him or her. In the same way one cannot have satisfaction in the absence of commitment to one's duty.
With regard to performance, Cooper and Makin (1984) gave a general consensus among researchers that job satisfaction did not lead by itself to increased performance when appropriately rewarded that lead to satisfaction.
This concerns the attitudes people have towards work especially hard work, the belief that personal worth results from self-sacrificing work and personal achievement (Blood 1969). Babatye (1992) obtained a very strong relationship between work ethic and organizational commitment. When he carried out the steprise multiple regression, work ethic became the best predictor of organizational commitment. Elsewhere it has been found that Protestant work ethic is positively associated with other work related behaviors (Greenberg 1978).
Pay and Incentives
Grusky (1966) put rewards among the most important factors which influence the strength of a person's attachment to an organization. He says that if a person discovers that he cannot obtain the rewards he originally desired, he either leaves the organization and joins another or if this is not feasible, he accepts those rewards which he can obtain and at the same time feels less committed to that organization. On the other hand, obtaining the rewards sought operates to further his felt obligation to the organization and this commitment is strengthened.
Kajubi (1967) stressed that apart from the unsatisfactory salary, what is more important is that teachers are no longer commanding the social status commensurate with the importance of their work. He added that the civil service politics and administration reflect in the community a much brighter social image than the teaching profession. He attributed all this to nothing else other than poor remuneration of the teachers' work.
Sekitoleko (1988) observed that lecturers were moving from Makerere University to go and teach in Mbale Islamic University. The only reason she gave was of poor remuneration. Similarly, Opon (1986) had argued that the compensation for motivation including giving rewards fringe benefits and promotions are very important in teacher performance and commitment.
Total package or take home pay is very important for a civil servant. Enough package implies that the employee will be able to meet his or her economic obligations. This is likely to lead to increased job satisfaction and therefore increase the organizational commitment (Herzberg 1970).
Interest in organizational commitment has been stimulated largely by its demonstrated negative relation to turnover. Committed employees have been found to be less likely to leave an organization than those who are uncommitted (Angle 1981).
No wonder the high performance of Japanese firms has been attributed to highly committed workers (Ouchi 1981). Furthermore, White (1987) indicated that strong commitment in general is likely to result in conscientious and selfdirected application to work regular attendance and a high level of effort.
Turnover can be costly to organizations in particular and the society as a whole, and in this respect, commitment is generally assumed to be a desirable quality that should not only be fostered in employees but also studied.
Role factors have been found to be the most potent antecedent factors of organizational commitment. For example, Steers (1977) found that work experiences like group attitudes towards the organization, met expectations, feelings of personal importance, dependability of the organization in carrying out commitments to employees were positively related to organizational commitment.
Positive interpersonal relation increases commitment to work groups and therefore positively correlated to organizational commitment (Stevens et al. 1978).
The intention of employees to seek advanced formal education was found to be an important variable to organizational commitment (Blau and Scott, 1962; Grusky, 1966). The desire for additional education could imply professionalism (Gouldner, 1957) while the lack of that desire could suggest more locally - directed orientations.
Work overload was found to be one of the best predictors of organizational commitment (Ndifunaa 1992). Work overload had also been found to relate negatively with organization commitment (Stevens et al. 1978).
The existing literature thus provides clues as to the nature of organizational commitment. The significance of variables such as length of service or dissatisfaction with organizational reward policies would indicate the role-related nature of commitment. The importance of age, coupled with the significance of length of service would further suggest the structural or accrual nature of the commitment phenomenon.
The primary significance of personal factors such as religion, sex, marital status or intentions to seek advanced education would imply bases or determinants of organizational commitment other than the purely structural ones.
In respect of the foregoing review, the following hypotheses were developed to guide the research:
1. Personal variables do not significantly influence women's organizational commitment in higher institutions of learning. These include marital status, age, religion, educational level, number of dependents, tenure, academic rank, terms of service and previous job.
2. Job satisfaction and Protestant work ethic do not significantly influence womens' organizational commitment in higher institutions of learning.
3. Situational variables do not significantly influence women's organizational commitment in higher institutions of learning. These include salary, incentives, total package, absenteeism, types of institutions and Faculty/Department.
4. Role variables of professionalism and work load do not significantly influence women's organizational commitment in higher institutions of learning in Uganda.
5. Female and male lecturers in higher institutions of learning do not significantly vary in the degree of their organizational commitment.
