Gender Differences in School Performance Evidence From the National Form Iv Examination Results And Implications For Poverty

Rosalia S. Katapa*and Imani N. Swilla*

Abstract: Every year in November, the National Examinations Council (NEC) of Tanzania conducts the Certificate of Secondary Education Examinations (CSEE). This paper compares the performance of secondary school girls to that of boys who sat for the CSEE in 1995. It also assesses the contribution of girls', boys' and co-educational schools to the best 10% schools in the CSEE of 1995 as well as that of 1994. The implications of these findings and changes in educational policies needed to alleviate poverty are discussed.

1. INTRODUCTION

Education plays a crucial role in development, but large sections of the population in Third World countries have little or no access to formal education and are illiterate. Many school-age children in these countries are denied access to education. Women in the Third World, particularly women in Africa, have very limited access to educational opportunities. Several studies have indicated the small percentage of girls who receive formal education at primary, secondary and post-secondary levels in Africa (Adams and Kruppenbach, 1987; Nafziger, 1988: Bogonko, 1992). On the other hand, UNESCO (1983) and the World Bank (1983) recognise the need to expand and improve women's opportunities in order to have meaningful development. Education is now viewed as the modus operandi to prepare women for an expanded scope of participation and a more dynamic role as agents of change (Adams & Kruppenbach, 1987). However, many women still receive little or no education; the Tanzanian example is described below.

The introduction of formal education in Tanganyika during the colonial period was characterised by unequal access between the sexes, with fewer girls' than boys' schools and low enrolment rates for girls (Nafziger, 1988; Bogonko, 1992).

Expansion of educational facilities, especially at secondary level, became a priority at independence in 1961, in order to meet the manpower demands of the new state. However, discrimination against women in education continued, as girls' schools were neither expanded nor increased at a par with those for boys. Today, the enrolment rate of girls in schools is lower than that of boys (United Republic of Tanzania, 1993).

Currently, the education system consists of seven years of primary, four years of "O" level secondary and two years of "A" level secondary, and, lastly, post-secondary education. Universal primary education was implemented by 1977, resulting in a high rate of enrolment at this level. A competitive national examination is administered in the seventh year to select students for government secondary schools. Some primary school leavers not selected for government secondary schools join private ones. At the end of four years of secondary education, the Certificate of Secondary Education Examinations (CSEE) is administered.

While increased enrolment rates are a positive fact, we argue that the quantitative increase in the enrolment of girls in secondary schools is not matched by a qualitative improvement which can be assessed by examining girls' performance in the Certificate of Secondary Education Examinations (CSEE).

The present paper focuses on the performance of secondary school girls and boys in the CSEE. The major assumption is that although there has been a quantitative improvement in the enrolment of girls in secondary schools (United Republic of Tanzania, 1993; Tanzania Gender Networking Program, 1993), the majority of them perform worse than boys in the CSEE.

2. OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESES

The main objective of this paper is to assess the quality of education offered to girls in secondary schools. For the purpose of this paper, "quality of education" will be assessed by performance in the Certificate of Secondary School Education Examinations (CSEE). Another objective is to explore implications of quality of education (offered to girls) for poverty alleviation.

The following hypotheses will be teste

3.1 Data

Data used in the analysis are compiled from the "Examinations Results Statistics: November 1995", a manual produced by The National Examinations Council of Tanzania.

3.2 Methods

(a) The results in the 1995 Certificate of Secondary Education Examinations (CSEE) are used to compare performance of girls' and boys' schools. Thirty-nine girls' and forty seven boys' schools took part in the 1995 CSEE. There were 4,068 and 3,380 candidates in girls' and boys' schools respectively. A t-test is used to compare proportions of candidates in boys' and girls' schools who got:

(i) first division

(ii) second division, and finally

(iii) third division.

(b) The same 1995 Certificate of Secondary Examinations results are used to compare the performance of girls and boys in the co-educational schools. In 1995, there were 378 co-educational schools with 12, 697 female and 17,704 male candidates for the CSEE. Similarly, a t-test is used to compare proportions of female and male candidates in co-educational schools who got:

(i) first division,

(ii) second division, and finally

(iii) third division.

(c) The ranking of schools by the National Examinations Council in the 1995 CSEE is used to find the number of girls', boys' and co-educational schools which were in the top 10%. Similarly, the numbers of girls', boys' and co-educational schools which ranked in the top 25% in the CSEE of 1995 are sought.

(d) The analyses of ranks performed in (c) are repeated for the CSEE of 1994.

3.3 Analysis and Results

The basic assumptions in these analyses are that:

(i) The candidates who sat for the CSEE of 1995 are a random sample of candidates from a population of candidates.

(ii) The proportion of candidates who got first division in the CSEE of 1995 is normally distributed with mean P and variance P (1-P) /N,

where P (the population proportion) and N (the population size) are unknown.

Assumption (ii) applies to candidates who got second and third divisions as well.

Performance of girls' and boys' schools in the CSEE of 1995 is presented in Section 3.3.1; that of girls and boys in co-educational schools appears in Section 3.3.2. The analyses of the composition of the best 10% and 25% schools are presented in 3.3.3. and those of the CSEE of 1994 are presented in 3.3.4.

3.3.1 Performance of Girls and Boys in Single Sex Schools

In Table 1, a presentation of the distribution of 1995 CSEE awards to girls' and boys' schools are made.

(a) First division

(b) Second division

(c) Third division

3.3.2 Performance of Girls and Boys in Co-educational Schools

Table 2. Distribution of 1995 CSEE Awards in Co-educational Schools

(a) First division

(b) Second division

(c) Third division

3.3.3 Composition of Best Schools: CSEE of 1995

(a) Best 10% Schools in the CSEE of 1995

Table 3. Top 10% Schools in the CSEE of 1995

(b) Best Schools in the CSEE of 1995

Table 4. Top 25% Schools in the CSEE of 1995

3.3.4 Composition of Best Schools: CSEE of 1994

(a) Best 10% Schools in the CSEE of 1994

Table 5. Top 10% Schools in the CSEE of 1994

(b) Best 25% Schools in the CSEE of 1994

Table 6. Top 25% Schools in the CSEE of 1994

4. DISCUSSION

The analysis has shown that the performance of girls in all-girl schools was significantly poorer than that of boys in all-boy schools. Secondly, in co-educational schools, the performance of girls was significantly poorer than that of boys. These findings have major implications for girls' education and occupation.

4.1 Factors Contributing to Girls' Poor Performance

Drawing from studies conducted by other researchers, several factors are suggested as possible contributors to the poor performance of girls in general. Giddens (1989) discusses social and family background, the school environment, as well as students themselves as major influences on school performance in general. Muze (1987), Mwakilembe (1981) and Mwollo-Ntalima (1981) reveal that teachers' satisfaction and motivation contribute to performance. Swilla (1992) reveals that teachers' attitude to the teaching profession and towards female students contribute to performance. Swilla is also of the opinion that boys' schools are favoured in the allocation of teachers for crucial subjects such as mathematics.

4.2 Implications of Girls' Poor Performance in Schools for Poverty

Poverty is a relative term. Iliffe (1987) distinguishes two levels of poverty in Africa: the poor, a term referring to the majority of Africans obliged to struggle continuously to preserve themselves and their dependants from physical want; the destitute, or the very poor, referring to smaller numbers of people who have permanently or temporarily failed in that struggle and have fallen into physical want. The two levels are linked and affect both rural and urban populations. Alleviation of the first level is likely to improve the situation at the second level. Since demographic studies predict that within the next decades, 40% of sub-Saharan Africa's population will live in urban areas, it is necessary to take into account the relevant sociological differences when planning for poverty alleviation.

The majority of the poor, particularly in Africa, are women. Their access to better-paid jobs is limited because they generally have less access to educational facilities and to education than men. The South Commission (1990) underlines the need to raise educational standards, especially at secondary and higher levels, and to foster technical and scientific skills at all educational levels for sustainable development. This applies to all sectors: formal, informal, public and private.

Increased education and literacy have been associated with lower birth rates, increased life expectancy, reduced infant mortality rate and access to general health services, all aspects which are considered to be among the indicators of development (Wagner, 1993).

A former Tanzanian minister for science, technology and higher education stated, "... there is a dynamic link between the two issues of education and poverty - if not causal then certainly reinforcing. Education is perceived as a tool for mastering the environment for production and self-preservation. In many countries the poor are often also the uneducated..." (Bagachwa, 1994).

The Beijing Platform of Action identified twelve priority areas for action and the Tanzanian Government has committed itself to implementing four of these, including education and training of the girl-child. The inclusion of education is evidence of the government's recognition of the crucial role education plays in empowering women in all aspects of life, one of which is reduction of the level of poverty. Studies elsewhere indicate that investment in women's education is in general more profitable than that for men. (Psacharopoulos, 1994).

Women make up approximately 51% of Tanzania's population and it is critical to ensure that they are able to participate equitably with males in the economic sector at all levels. Stereotypes which limit certain tasks and/or positions to men or women restrict the ability of women to participate in the economy. The critical need for female role models in a wider range of tasks and professions is noted, as is the need to ensure that teachers themselves are sensitised to gender issues ( Biklen & Pollard, 1994). Secondary school students often have to make career decisions relatively early in their academic lives, and it is important that they receive adequate, non-gender biased assistance from teachers in the decision- making process (Rennie & Dunne, 1994)

Unemployment is also one of the factors associated with poverty. "Widespread poverty remains the major challenge to development efforts. Poverty is often accompanied by unemployment, malnutrition, illiteracy, low status of women, exposure to environmental risks and limited access to social and health services...." (UN International Conference on Population and Development, 1994, p.20).

The majority of employed women in Tanzania are in low-paying jobs (The United Republic of Tanzania, 1992; IDS Women Study Group, 1987) because the latter do not demand high levels of education. Thus poor performance of girls in schools continues to deny women the opportunities for higher education which would give them access to better-paying jobs. The view that "The increase in the education of women and girls contributes to greater empowerment of women...." (UN International Conference on Population and Development, 1994, pp. 79) underlines the importance that the United Nations attaches to women's education.

Since women occupy low-paying positions and have little training, many lose jobs during retrenchments which accompany the implementation of adjustment programs. Even university education and university employment is not sufficient to ensure equity in the job market for females. Studies show that although women may make significant gains in access to educational institutions as students, they do not do so as educational administrators or university professors (Byrne 1975).

In the past, the government and parastatal organisations were the major employers in the formal sector in Tanzania, and the terms of service for the same job and qualifications were equal for both sexes. However, with the advent of structural adjustment and massive retrenchment, the employment situation has changed rapidly and drastically. The least qualified, including many women, were among the first to be retrenched.

Government policy currently places emphasis on the development of the private sector. Foreign companies investing in Tanzania are creating jobs for which women must compete with men. However, private companies may not necessarily reward men and women equally. Experiences elsewhere have shown that women receive lower salaries than men even when they have the same job, age, education and work experience (Truman & Baroudi, 1994). In South Africa, employers are particularly selective regarding the quality of secondary school qualifications attained by job applicants, and reward higher quality passes with higher earnings (Pillay, 1994). Low qualifications of girls are likely to affect negatively their job opportunities.

The job market has become more competitive. It is, therefore, critical that women receive adequate education and possess the skills necessary to survive. Aside from a sound basic education at various levels, skills associated with computing are needed. Dyck & Smither (1994) noted that there is a critical need for female students to be exposed to computers and the electronic information system because they are crucial in the modern world. If girls' access to such skills is limited, they will be unable to compete effectively.

Empirical studies on youth unemployment and job opportunities in Zambia revealed that lack of education, among other things, contributes to youth unemployment (Tembo & Sipatela, 1988; Kamya, 1983). If girls perform worse than boys at the end of secondary education, it will be difficult for them to find employment.

The findings of this study show that women do not often receive good quality secondary education. Yet, quality secondary education is the basis for developing various skills needed in the modern world. It has been noted that scientific and technological skills are needed to raise agricultural and non-agricultural production. However, the exclusion of women from these skills will hinder development, especially in rural areas. Burns, Kick, Murray & Murray (1994) found that growth in secondary education is associated with less deforestation. Good quality secondary education for women is essential, for example, to develop knowledge of complex issues such as environmental conservation, which is the basis for sustainable development.

A degraded environment leads to reduced production, among many other adverse effects. In sub-Saharan Africa, women grow 80% of the food for their households and about 50% of all cash crops (Jacobson, 1992). Women who are the major labour force and the backbone of agriculture in Africa need quality education to enable them to control and utilise the environment for improved production, which will lead to reduction in levels of general poverty. As Jacobson (1992) argues, gender bias is a major roadblock to sustainable development.

It is ironic that all approaches to rural development in Africa implicitly require more responsibility and input from women and result in drastically increasing the workloads of women in rural areas (Barrett & Browne, 1994). At the same time, fewer women than men receive secondary education and also girls' performance is worse than boys'. Therefore, policies that will ensure equal access to quality secondary education for boys and girls are needed.

The benefits of access to education for women, which improve the quality of life, reduce poverty, result in greater productivity, and improve the possibilities of sustainable development, have been demonstrated in numerous studies. Women who are sufficiently educated to run for public office provide hope in addressing public health problems of urbanisation (Mutatkar, 1995). Higher education has been shown to be related to a lifetime cumulative disability of 21% to 60% less for the more educated than the less educated and is apparently a useful measure of good health practices (Leigh & Fries, 1994).

This study has shown that in single sex schools, boys' schools perform better than girls' and that in coeducational schools, boys perform better than girls. It is necessary to assess the factors which explain the differences between boys` and girls' performance, and to address these in policy and in practice. If qualitative improvement in education does not match the quantitative increase in the girls' enrolment, the public will be falsely led to conclude that girls and boys have equal access to education. Consequently, women will neither benefit from educational opportunities nor contribute effectively to poverty alleviation, which is a crucial issue in national and global development.

Whether women live in rural or urban areas, they must have access to the maximum educational opportunities available. Both rural and urban women need access to more educational opportunities and training of the highest quality.

The policies developed and implemented by the government on girls' education will determine how successfully women fare in the next century, and whether or not they will be able to participate effectively in the sustainable development of the economy, thus alleviating poverty.

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