S.K. Mugasi
E.N. Sabiiti
B. Tayebwa
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The role of pastoralism in the economies of the East African states is undoubtedly important considering the contribution of the pastoralists to the GDP of the respective counties. In Uganda, about 95% of the cattle population is owned by pastoralists and agro-pastoralists, mainly occupying the arid and semi-arid lands known as the cattle corridor (Map 1) and livestock accounts for 38% of the agricultural GDP (FAO Yearbook, 1994). With a potentially available rangeland area of 7.5 million hectares and an average stocking rate of 1.82 hectares/cow, Uganda has a potential of grazing over 4.0 million cows for meat production, a considerable potential for livestock production (Table 1). The utilization of rangelands for sustainable livestock production faces severe limitations and challenges. Their productivity is generally low due to the limited availability and poor management of important resources like pastures, water, and soils.
Map 1
|
Region |
Mean Dry Matter Kg/ha/year |
50% safe grazing Kg/ha/year |
Consumption Kg/LU/year |
Ha/LU |
Northern Uganda |
4500 |
2250 |
3194 |
1.42 |
North west |
4680 |
2340 |
3194 |
1.36 |
North east |
1680 |
840 |
3194 |
3.80 |
Central |
5328 |
2662 |
3194 |
1.20 |
South east |
4250 |
2125 |
3194 |
1.50 |
South west |
3900 |
1950 |
3194 |
1.63 |
Mean |
4056 |
2023 |
3194 |
1.82 |
Source: Mugerwa, 1992 (Unpublished)
Assumptions: One Livestock Unit (LU) = 350kg; Dry matter (DM) consumption = 2.5 body weight x 365 days. Safe grazing is 50% of total DM production; browse not included in total DM production.
According to a baseline survey carried out by the Dryland Husbandry Project (DHP) in the pastoral rangelands of Kazo in Mbarara district in 1996, range deterioration due to bush encroachment (Fig. 2) was identified as a major factor affecting livestock production. The trees and bushes have reduced grazeable land and suppressed palatable grasses as reported by Sabiiti and Wein (1991), posing a threat to livestock production in a region that sustains 30% of the national herd. The current overall policy on modernizing has apparently tended to focus more on production of crops and modern dairy production than the pastoral livestock system despite its central role in the entire livestock sector.
In this study, availability and management of pastures was singled out as a major factor affecting the survival of pastoralists and their animals. The research was, therefore, designed with the aim of studying the economic implications of one of the major constraints facing rangeland utilization, namely shrub encroachment. Some pastoralists have cleared their land and tried to improve their pastures while others have not. The comparison of animal productivity, incomes and the relative financial efficiency of the two categories of farms forms the basis of this study.
Figure 1 Bush encroachment in pastoral rangelands in southwest Uganda
1.2 Objectives of the Study
(i) To assess the level of animal productivity, in terms of milk yield, body condition and reproductive performance, in relation to range condition;
(ii) To assess the farm production costs in relation to range condition;
(iii) To determine the level of farm profitability in relation to range condition.
1.3 The Study Area
The study was carried out in Kazo county (Map 2) Mbarara district in 15" N Uganda. The county is administratively divided into five sub counties, namely: Kazo, Buremba, Kanoni, Burunga, and Rwemikoma. Annual rainfall is about 1200 mm and is mainly convectional, dropping to an average of 875 mm in dry season. There are two rainfall maxim, one in April-May and another September to November, with two prolonged dry seasons in June to August and December to March. Temperatures can rise to 29oC with a variation of 2 to 7 degrees centigrade.
The soils are typical of the Kazo catena, characteristically shallow, brown and reddish brown, sandy loams with the parent rock consisting of quartzites and granites. The vegetation mainly consists of open dry savanna with scattered trees of different species of Acacia. The vegetation is, however, changing from open grassland to thicket that is almost impenetrable in some places. The vegetation generally described as bushed grassland consists of grouped tress and shrubs with a combined canopy. The pastures contain fair proportions of Hyparrhenia rufa, H. filipendula, Thermeda triandra, Brachiaria ruzinziensis, invaded by unpalatable grass species like Cymbopogon afronardus and Sporobolus pyramidalis and shrubs like Lantana camara. Table 2 summarizes weed species in rangelands.
Map 2
Table 2. Major Pasture Weeds in Uganda
Type |
Distribution |
Habitat |
Habit |
Acacia spp. |
S |
G |
3 |
Lantana camara |
S |
GA |
3 |
Cymbopogon afronardus |
SD |
G |
3 |
Haemanthus multifluru |
D |
G |
3 |
Caesalpinia occidentale |
S |
G |
3 |
Echinops giganteous |
S |
G |
3 |
Maema pseudopetalos |
FS |
G |
3 |
Source: Survey Data
Key:
S = Savanna areas D = Semi-arid G = Grassland
F = Forest A = Arable 3 = Perennial
1.4 Population
About 80% of the people in the this area are pastoralists, mainly of the Bahima ethnic group. The Bahima are Banyankole by tribe and to speak the ordinary Runyankole dialect. Traditionally, the Bahima are cattle keepers, with the Long-horned Ankole cow as the dominant breed. The Bahima are well known for their great love for cattle and have a good history of breeding especially for colour, horn type, and milk yield. The remaining 20% of the population constitutes the crop farmers who are mainly immigrants from the densely populated districts like Kabale and Rukungiri.
1.5 Research Methodology
1.5.1 Sample Selection
The research involved sixty pastoral households purposively selected from the two sub-counties of Kazo and Rwemikoma. These were divided into two categories of range condition.
· Thirty households with more than 75% of the grazing land cleared of bush and
· Thirty households with less than 25% of the grazing land cleared.
Different types of data were collected from the 60 pastoral households surveyed. Data collected ranged from existing and documented information to data collected from field. Field data collected includes both range and farm productivity. A rapid rural appraisal followed by a comprehensive baseline survey were also conducted in Kazo in 1996 to identify constraints faced by pastoralists in rangeland utilization. This study was, therefore, a follow up of the baseline survey.
Primary data was collected from the field with the help of questionnaires, field measurements and observations. This included socio-demographic data, farm production, farm income and expenditure, and herbage quality and quantity. A questionnaire was developed and pre-tested in the area where the research was to be conducted. After pre-testing the questionnaire, unnecessary questions were eliminated and the omitted ones were included. The questionnaire was used to collect socio-demographic and farm production data. The questionnaire was administered by interview method. Interviews were conducted in the selected households in the two sub counties using questionnaires. The interviews were conducted by direct translation of questions into the local language. Most of the responses made by farmers were by recall method since very few of them keep records.
1.5.3 Herbage Estimation
Five sample areas each 4m2, were randomly selected on each farm and the herbage enclosed was harvested to ground level using a slushier. The sample area harvested on each farm was in agreement with Mannetje (1976) who suggested that a sample area of 0.5% or less was adequate for measuring herbage quantity in grasslands. Fresh weight measurements of the cut pasture were taken and recorded in the field using a pocket balance. The samples were then oven dried for 48 hrs at 65oC to obtain dry matter (DM) weight per hectare and botanical composition.
Chemical analysis was also carried out to determine crude protein (CP) content are neutral detergent fibre (NDF) as measures of pasture quality. Crude Protein was determined using the standard procedure of the micro-Kjeldah* method (AOAC, 1990), NDF was determined using the procedure described by Goering and Van Soest (1970).
It is useful to quantify the extent to which cattle are affected by nutrition, disease or other environmental factors, especially when large fluctuations in the quantity and quality of available forage occur, as they do in seasonally dry tropical and subtropical areas (Nicholson and Butterworth, 1986). Such monitoring is usually done by measuring changes in weight or heart girth, but these techniques have a number of disadvantages. First, weighing scales are cumbersome, expensive and difficult to transport. Second, weight per se does not reflect animals condition; and animal with a large frame may have a higher body weight when at low level of body reserves than another animal with a smaller frame but abundant reserves; animals must therefore be individually identified to record seasonal weight change.
For those involved in cattle research in Africa, condition scaring provides a quick, cheap, and easy method of comparing herds of cattle or individual animals under differing management systems, experimental treatments, seasons or environments (Nicholson and Butterworth, 1986). Large number of animals can be scored at a time without need to handle them or use a weigh scale.
The method used in this study was the one recommended for Bos indicus cows. It consisted of nine scores with three main conditions - fat (F), medium (M), and lean (L). These three conditions were subdivided into three categories and were abbreviated as; F+, F, F-; M+, M, M-; L+, L, and L-. Each scoring was given a number from 1 (L-) to 9(F+). A 5% sample of the herd was randomly selected from each farm and scored.
Statistical analysis was undertaken. The analysis was mainly based on comparison of the two types of range condition using difference of means, percentages, gross margins and financial efficiency.
2.1 Land Tenure
Land is increasingly becoming a very important resource among the pastoral communities in Mbarara District. With progressive individualization of common grazing land rights in Mbarara District as reported by Kisamba-Mugerwa (1995), communal land holding is phasing out in Kazo. Pastoralists have acquired land and settled on their farms as opposed to the traditional nomadism. There were more leaseholds on cleared compared to bushy farms. Twenty three percent of cleared farms had leases compared to only 6.7% of bushy farms. Seventy seven percent of the cleared farms surveyed had freehold tenure compared to 93.4% of the bushy farms (Table 3). This could be attributed to two main reasons. Firstly, owners of cleared farms were relatively more educated and hence more enlightened than those of bushy farms. This enabled them to realise the need to have land titles. Secondly, the cleared farms are more improved and hence have higher capital value. This creates a need for farmers to have land titles to protect their farms.
Table 3. Land Tenure and Ownership in Kazo County in 1998
Cleared Farms |
Bushy Farms | |
Tenure |
||
Freehold (%) |
76.7 |
93.4 |
Leased (%) |
23.3 |
6.6 |
Ownership |
||
Communal (%) |
0 |
1.7 |
Private (%) |
100 |
98.3 |
Source: Survey Data
Individualization of land in Kazo has enabled pastoralists to settle and establish permanent homes. They have also been able to fence off their land to improve their pasture. Fencing has helped to control cattle diseases, particularly Foot and Mouth Disease and Contagious Bovine Pleural Pneumonia, that were rampant in the area. However, about 10% of the pastoralists still had a negative attitude towards individualization and fencing of land. Their contention was that fencing limits free movement of cattle and also denies access of cattle to communal water reservoirs which have for long been the sole source of water. This attitude cannot simply be dismissed because privatization of land greatly reduced grazing area for most pastoralists since land was not equally divided.
This was also reported by Peters (1994) who noted that the sine qua non of dryland cattle-keeping in Africa has been mobility. She argues that privatization reduces land area and eliminates the mobility and flexibility in grazing that is crucial in the management of climatic risk. Restriction of herds to individual land holdings has led to reduced availability of pasture and water resources in the dry season because the practice of freely moving cattle in the rangeland to where these resources are available is no longer permissible. Reduction of hard sizes, through deliberate culling or high mortality resulting from starvation and diseases, has been an inevitable outcome of this situation. This problem was more pronounced on bushy farms where more than 75% of the grazing land is covered by shrubs, limiting the grazing capacity of the land. With cleared farms, where more grazing was available, the problem was not felt. This scenario, which was also reported by Sserunkuuma (1998) in Nyabushozi, is likely to have serious implications on low income pastoral households that are unable to clear their farms to improve on availability of pasture.
Following privatization of land holdings, pastoralists acquired different sizes of land. Land which was originally communally owned and used as common property in Kazo has been transformed into private property. Table 4 shows that 40% of the pastoralists had more than 100 ha of land 26.7% of which were grazing on cleared farms while 13.3% were grazing on bushy farms.
Table 4. Size of Land Holding By Range Condition in Kazo
County in 1998
Land size (ha) |
Cleared Farms |
Bushy Farms |
Total (%) |
< 10(%) |
1.7 |
0.0 |
1.7 |
10-50 (%) |
8.3 |
20.0 |
28.3 |
50-100 (%) |
13.3 |
16.7 |
30.0 |
> 100 (%) |
26.7 |
13.3 |
40.0 |
Total |
50 |
50 |
100 |
Source: Survey Data
The herd size in the surveyed area ranged from less than 10 to 400 heads of cattle. The mean herd size was 80 heads of cattle in respect of the entire sample studied. In fact, 48.3% of all the surveyed households had 11-50; 26.7% had 50-100; while only 20% had more than 100 heads of cattle (Table 5).
There was a relationship between herd size and range condition. Table 5 shows that all the farmers with more than 150 heads of cattle had cleared farms. As herd size increased there was a relatively more tendency to have cleared farms. This was explained by the fact that the larger the herd the higher the income base hence enabling the farmer to improve the farm.
No. of Cattle |
Cleared Farms |
Bushy Farms |
Total (%) |
< 10 (%) |
1.7 |
3.3 |
5.0 |
11-50 (%) |
18.3 |
30.0 |
48.3 |
51-100 (%) |
13.3 |
13.3 |
26.6 |
101-150 (%) |
6.7 |
3.4 |
10.0 |
> 150 (%) |
10 |
0 |
10.0 |
Source: Survey Data
An important observation was that farmers sold pregnant cows because they fetch higher prices. Data obtained from the main Kampala abattoir indicated that for the months of September 1997 to March 1998, an average of 41% of the slaughtered cows from Mbarara district, were pregnant. This trend has far reaching implications on the pastoral economy in that it is likely to retard herd replacement.
Overgrazing is not an uncommon observation in the rangelands of Uganda. Conventional wisdom now equates pastoralism with overgrazing, though there are differences in opinion as to its underlying causes (Homewood and Rogers, 1998). Several factors can be used to explain overgrazing in Kazo, but probably the most plausible was the fact that some pastoralists have deliberately refused to adjust their herds to the sizes of the now privately owned land. This is because herd size is an insurance against high mortality rates and low reproductive rates. Furthermore, over dependence on cattle for survival requires that pastoralist keep large herds which act as a store of wealth. The former practice of communal grazing would allow them to increase their herds without limit because more grazing land was available and cattle mobility was not restricted.
Shrub encroachment has also contributed to overgrazing in Kazo. This is particularly so on bushy farms where shrubs have covered over 75% of the grazing land and led to reduction of the carrying capacity of land since palatable grass species have been replaced by undesirable shrubs. Given that pastoralists persistently keep large herds despite the poor condition of the pasture, high grazing pressure is exerted on the cleared portions leading to overgrazing and degradation of the rangeland.
Land utilization in Kazo is undergoing a gradual transformation. In the traditional pastoral set up, land was used primarily for cattle keeping and milk and meat constituted the staple food. Food items would only be obtained by exchanging them with livestock products particularly milk and ghee. There has, however, been a gradual transformation of the pastoral economy into an agro-pastoral economy. Land is now used for both livestock rearing and crop production. About 45% of the households were agro-pastoral while 55% were purely pastoral mainly dependant on livestock for survival. Both permanent crops and seasonal crops are grown in Kazo. The major permanent crops grown are banana and coffee while annual crops include beans, maize, cassava and millet.
Table 4 indicates that there was relatively more acreage under both permanent and seasonal crops on cleared farms than on bushy ones. The average acreage under permanent crops on cleared farms was 0.62 hectares compared to 0.49 hectares on bushy farms. On the other hand, acreage under seasonal crops was 0.26 hectares on cleared farms compared to 0.18 hectares on bushy farms. More acreage or cleared farms could be attributed to the fact these farms are improved and commercial oriented. Moreover, they sell some of the crops grown, especially bananas and maize, to earn extra income to supplement livestock products.
Table 6. Average Acreage Under Crops in Kazo County in 1998
Cleared |
1.1.1.3.2.1 Bush | |
Permanent crops (ha) |
0.62 |
0.49 |
Seasonal crops (ha) |
0.26 |
0.18 |
Source: Survey Data
Cultivation as a household activity is becoming fully incorporated into the pastoral economy due to a number of reasons. Firstly, the emergence of milk collecting centres in remote areas has brought the market for milk near to the farmers. Five private milk processors have come up in Mbarara town, about 110 km away. With the emerging milk processors, farmers now sell most of the milk which was traditionally the staple food. The farmers now grow crops to provide an alternative source of food. Secondly, herd size per household is dwindling. Because households as they hardly survive only on cattle, have to grow crops to supplement the dwindling livestock products.
The main sources of income identified were livestock and livestock products, salary, business, crops, and donations, as shown in Table 7. Fifty five percent of the households entirely depended on livestock and livestock products as their main source of income. Milk and beef were the major livestock products sold by farmers. It was observed that 45% the households surveyed did not sale their milk, notably for two reasons. Firstly, some of these households do not have surplus for sale and, secondly, others have alternative sources of income and prefer to leave the milk for calves and for domestic consumption.
Table 7: Main Source of Income By Range Conditions in Kazo County In 1998
Source of income of Surveyed Household |
1.1.1.1.1.1 Cleared farms % |
Bushy farms % |
Total % |
Livestock |
25 |
40 |
55 |
Salary |
25 |
3.3 |
18.3 |
Business |
11.7 |
5 |
16.7 |
Donations |
5 |
1.7 |
6.7 |
Crops |
3.3 |
0 |
3.3 |
Total |
50 |
50 |
100 |
Source: Survey Data
There was also a close relationship between source of income and range condition (Table 7). Households with sources of income other than livestock had relatively better incomes and were hence able to improve their pastures by clearing bushes. Fifty five percent of the pastoralists depended on livestock as their source of income, 40% of whom were grazing on bushy farms while only 15% grazed on cleared farms. Out of the 30 cleared farms surveyed, 70% were owned by individuals either engaged in business or salary earners, those receiving donations, and those able to produce crops for sale. On the other hand, only 30% were owned by individuals depending on livestock as their main source of income. It was also observed that out of the 30 households grazing on bushy farms 80% of them depended on livestock as source of income.
The implication of this finding is that livestock as a source of income may not be sufficient to facilitate improvement of farmers' income in the area. This is mainly because livestock products have low farm gate prices while farm inputs especially cattle drugs and labour are very expensive. The problem was aggravated by the fact that cattle markets were indefinitely closed by government as a measure to check spread of diseases, especially CBPP. Farmers have improvised temporary cattle loading sites called Ebipakiriro at specific locations where traders buy cattle from. These sites are recognised by the local authorities and only cattle from specific localities are allowed in to control diseases. However, traders were few because of poor roads and this had an effect of keeping cattle prices very low.
Basing on the findings of this study, the socio-demographic set up of the pastoral communities is undergoing a gradual transformation. The major areas affected by this transformation are; attitude towards education, land tenure, land utilization, herd sizes, and source of income. The effects and implications of each of these aspects greatly vary. Following changes in land tenure, the most challenging transformation in the pastoral economy is perhaps the need to find the means of optimally utilizing the available land so as to sustain their herds and families. Pastoralists have not yet fully adjusted to this requirement as they continue to believe in numbers as an insurance against high mortality rates. This is likely to put the pastoralists in a cycle of high stocking rates, degradation of the range, low animal productivity, low household incomes, and hence inability to improve their pastures.
Herbage dry matter yield is an important factor in livestock production and is a reflection of the range condition. On cleared farms, dry matter (DM) yield ranged between 1,850 kg/ha and 2,230 kg/ha, while on bushy farms herbage yield ranged from 622 kg/ha to 1,190 kg/ha (Table 8). The highest dry matter yield of 2,230 kg/ha on cleared farms was lower than that reported by Sserunkuuma (1998), in the pastoral rangelands of Nyabushozi county, also in Mbarara district. This could be attributed to the fact that Nyabushozi is more advanced in pasture management, than Kazo. The highest DM yield in Uganda is about 5,328 kg/ha as reported by Mugerwa (1992) in central Uganda. This is mainly attributed to higher annual rainfall in the central region which goes up to 1800 mm compared to Kazo with 1200 mm, and the difference in vegetation of the two agro-ecological zones. Kazo county consists mainly of Hyparrhenia vegetation while the central region consists of Penniselum purpureum.
Table 8. Mean Herbage Dry Matter Yield and Chemical Composition
of Pasture on Two Types of Range Condition in Kazo in 1998
Cleared farms |
Bushy farms | |
Dry Matter (kg/ha) |
2,040 |
906 |
Crude Protein (kg/ha) |
182 |
86 |
Crude Protein (%) |
9.15 |
8.92 |
Neutral Detergent Fibre (NDF) |
62.50 |
63.00 |
Dry Matter (%) |
27.49 |
30.13 |
Legume Component (%) |
7.35 |
2.27 |
Source: Survey Data
While the amount of rainfall and grazing pressure in the previous season influence herbage production and availability respectively (Bekure et.al., 1991), shrub encroachment is another important factor that is likely to affect both production and availability of herbage. This is supported by the findings of Sabiiti and Wein (1991) who observed that shrubs reduce grazeable land and suppress palatable grass.
Shrubs in pastures, like other weeds in crops, out-compete the growing palatable pasture and keep its development in check. Shrubs are equally heavy users of water and minerals, both so essential to the proper development of the grass crop. Naturally, cattle tend to exert more grazing pressure on the palatable pasture species while shrubs grow undisturbed. This selective grazing by cattle, coupled with competition for water and minerals by the weeds, suppresses pasture growth and hence leads to reduced herbage dry matter yield.
Chemical analysis was carried out to determine the CP level and Natural Detergent Fibre of the pasture. Results indicated that the average CP concentration of forage on cleared farms was 9.15% compared to 8.92% on bushy farms (Table 8). The level of crude protein of the pasture in both range conditions was not significantly different, and slightly lower than the level required for moderate levels of ruminant production, 11-12% CP (ARC, 1980) but was higher than the limiting level (6-8%), below which appetite is depressed and pasture intake is less than might be expected (Minson, 1982; Forbes, 1986). On the other hand, average CP yield was 182 kg/ha on cleared farms compared to 86 kg/ha on bushy farms.
The observed difference in CP yield in the two range categories could be attributed to the level of pasture management. CP yield was higher on cleared farms most probably because of two main reasons; firstly, because of the relatively higher herbage DM yield on cleared farms since CP was estimated as factor of DM yield/ha, and, secondly, because of the higher legume component compared to bushy farms. The legume component on cleared farms was 7.35% on average compared to only 2.27% on bushy farms. The dominant legume on the farms were Glycine wighttii and Desmodium uncinatum. The low legume component could be attributed to high grazing pressure and severe competition by the encroaching shrubs.
Neutral Detergent Fibre, which refers to the crude fibre content of the pasture was also determined. Results indicated that though NDF was high in pasture under both types of farms, it was slightly higher on bushy 63% compared to 62% on cleared farms. This high crude fibre level is common in tropical pastures and is attributed to high temperatures which lead to lignification.
The productivity parameters analysed and discussed in this section are, milk yield, body condition, calf weaning age, calf mortality, and age at first calving in heifers grazing under the two types of range condition. These parameters are economically important because they effect both the reproductive capacity of the herd, and the farm output (milk and meat). Any factor that affects the rate of herd growth and cattle productivity directly affects the income of the pastoralists.
The body condition is a reflection of the nutritional status of the cattle which in turn reflects the quality and quantity of the pasture. Cattle that grazed on cleared farms had a higher average body score of 5.8 than those grazing on bushy farms with an average body score of 4.2, as indicated by results in Table 7. The difference in body condition was highly significant (P<0.001). Reed et al. (1974) reported a highly positive correlation between condition and resource availability (finance, management skill and grazing availability), including that condition scoring is useful not only for researchers but also for farmers and development planners.
The major limiting factor of livestock production in the tropics is insufficient availability of herbage. In most rangelands, herbage availability is low and greatly fluctuates with season. The difference in body condition observed could be partly explained by the quantity of herbage available under the two types of range condition. Most studies conducted in this area related body condition or weight gain to DM intake and Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD). Basing on the results of NDF and crude protein analysis of the two types of range conditions given in Table 8, it was fairly assumed that the DMD of the two types of pasture did not differ much. Furthermore, Otim (1973) also noted that pasture abundance or DM yield was one of the factors affecting voluntary intake.
As a conclusion, therefore, the difference in body condition in the two types of range condition was attributed to difference in dry matter availability. Cattle that grazed on cleared farms had a higher average body condition score partly because these farms had higher DM herbage yield than the bushy farms.
Economically, cattle of better body score fetch relatively higher prices than those of poor body condition. On average, a cow of a body condition score of 5.5 and above could go for Shs5. 350,000 and one with a score of less 4.0, for Shs. 200,000. Farmers grazing on cleared farms are, therefore, likely to have better income from sale of beef cattle than those grazing on bushy farms. Good body condition is also important for other aspects like reproductive efficiency and milk yield in cattle. These findings suggest that farmers that grazed on bushy farms, therefore, made economic losses in terms of poor reproductive performance and poor milk yield as a result of poor nutrition.
Results indicated that milk yield/cow/day was greatly dependent on management status of the pasture. Milk yields were significantly different (p<0.05) between cleared and bushy farms. The average milk yield on bushy farms was 2.4 litres/cow/day, compared to 3.8 litres/cow/day on cleared farms, which closely compares with 3.5 litres/cow/day for Ankole cattle in Uganda as reported by Sacker and Trail (1966).
The highest milk yield obtained on cleared farms was 8.3 litres/day/cow, while the lowest was 2.0 litres/day/cow. On the other hand, the highest yield on bushy farms was 4.2 litres/cow/day, while the lowest was 1.00 litre/day/cow. The average milk yield/cow/day on all the farms was generally low compared to the yield potential of the Ankole cow of 8 litres/cow/day. This was attributed to the state of the range which was generally poor. The crude protein levels of 9.15% and 8.92% in the cleared and bushy farms, respectively, were lower than the level required for moderate levels of ruminant production. This means that though the local Ankole breed is poor in milk yield, its actual potential for milk production is limited by the nature of the pasture. Besides forage availability and the breed factor, climatic stress resulting from high temperatures, humidity and low rainfall also limit milk production in tropical regions as observed by Payne (1970).
In the pastoral herding system, calf weaning largely depends on calving interval and the length of lactation period. Unlike in modern dairy systems where weaning is a management practice done by the farmer, in the pastoral set up calves suckle until their mothers reject them. Out of the 60 farms surveyed, 83.3% gave an average weaning age of less than 12 months, while 16.7% gave an average weaning age of 15 months.
Apparently, there seemed to be no variation in weaning age in the two range conditions. In both cleared and bushy farms 80% showed a weaning age of less than 12 months, while only 20% showed a weaning age of 15 months. It was also observed that in most of the farms surveyed, calves grazed with their mothers during the day and were separated from the herd at night to allow milking in the morning. Milking was done with calves at foot. It is important to note, however, that suckling plays a major role in governing reproductive cycles in female mammals (Williams, 1990). Prolonged suckling (delayed weaning) leads to delayed ovulation and hence extends the calving interval in lactating cattle. This is supported by the findings of Moya (1997) who observed that suppression of cyclic ovarian activity during the postpartum period is a characteristic of the suckled Bos indicus cow. This suggests that local cows could have shorter calving intervals if pastoralists weaned their calves earlier.
Reproductive performance of cattle was determined using age at first calving in heifers, calving rate and calf mortality. Results in Table 9 indicated that age at first calving varied with range condition. Results indicated that heifers grazing on cleared farms reached puberty earlier and hence calved relatively earlier than heifers grazing on bushy farms. Puberty is the stage of physiological maturation at which natural procreation can first occur. Forty percent of heifers grazing cleared farms calved at less than one old while only 1% of those grazing bushy farms calved at that age. Forty percent of heifers grazing bushy farms calved at more than three years old while none of those grazing cleared farms calved at that age.
1.1.1.1.1.1.1 Table 9. Age at First Calving in Heifers Grazing on Two Types of Range
Conditions in Kazo County in 1998
Age (Months) |
Cleared farms |
Bushy farms |
Less than 2 years (%) |
40 |
1 |
2-3 years (%) |
60 |
59 |
More than 3 years (%) |
- |
40 |
Total (%) |
100 |
100 |
Source: Survey Data
Delayed puberty and pregnancy losses, coupled with continuous sale of pregnant cows are two major problems facing pastoralists. The combined effect of these occurrences is the gradual dwindling of herds, a situation that is likely to threaten the survival of pastoralists. Basing on this study, it can be fairly concluded that the nutritional status of the cattle influences their reproductive efficiency. Farmers grazing on bushy farms were most likely making losses in terms of low calving rates and hence inadequate herd replacement.
In the study, calving rate was taken to be the total numbers of calves born as a proportion of the total number of animals in the herd in 12 months. The mean calving rate on cleared farms was 33.6% compared to only 22.6% on bushy farms.
Cattle that grazed on cleared farms had relatively higher mean calving rates compared to those that grazed on bushy farms. The t-test indicated a significant difference (p<0.05) in mean calving rates between the two types of range condition. These findings suggest that poor nutritional status of cattle reduce their fertility rates. The implication of this finding is that poor nutritional status of cows can lead to low rates of herd replacement and hence low herd growth rate.
Calf mortality rate, on the other hand, was given as the total number of calves that died as a proportion of the total number of calves born in the herd in 12 months. Calf mortality in pastoral herds is of economic importance because of two main reasons. Firstly, loss of calves means loss of milk because cattle are milked with calves at foot. Secondly, loss of calves means loss of herd replacement heifers which could lead to herd collapse.
Findings indicated as a significant difference between the calf mortality rates in the two range conditions (p<0.05). The calf mortality rate on cleared farms was 7.2% compared to 15% on bushy farms. The difference in mortality rates could partly be explained by the better quality and more availability of pasture and more availability of milk to the calves on cleared farms. These calf mortality rates were, however, considerably low compared to 20-25% as recorded by Butterworth (1985) in most tropical herds. The low calf mortality rates observed in the study could, in part, be attributed to form of calf management exercised by the farmers. In most of the farms surveyed, calves were left to graze with their mothers during the day and removed from the herd at night to allow milking in the morning. Farmers have adopted this method of calf management reportedly for two reasons: it allows calves sufficient time for suckling and hence mature faster; it reduces labour requirement for calf rearing.
In conclusion, the findings of this study indicated that shrub encroachment suppressed palatable pasture and therefore reduced dry matter herbage yield on bushy farms. The crude protein yield was also low on bushy farms because the legume component was persistently kept low due to overgrazing. As result, the productivity of cattle in terms of body condition, milk yield, and reproductive performance were lower on bushy farms compared to cleared ones. It is, therefore, very important that farmers clear their farms to improve the quality and quantity of the pasture so as to increase animal performance.
Farm profitability was determined using gross margin analysis. Gross margins were worked out for both types of range condition by finding the difference between gross income and the variable costs incurred. The major sources of income as already observed were milk sales, cattle sales and other sources like salaries and business.
2.13 Farm Expenditure
Farm expenditure was mainly on cattle drugs, shrub control, veterinary consultancy, labour, (herding, milking and watering), and fencing. The farmers in the two types of range condition spent differently on the five areas mentioned in Table 10.
Table 10. Average Annual Expenditure of Farms Under the Two
Types of Range Condition in Kazo in 1988 (Uganda, Shs)*
Item |
Cleared farms |
Bushy farms |
Shrub Control |
1,215,680 |
443,360 |
Cattle Drugs |
677,040 |
477,520 |
Vet. Services |
58,400 |
28,000 |
Fencing and Fence Repairs |
400,560 |
341,440 |
Farm labour |
621,120 |
263,280 |
Total |
2,972,800 |
1,553,840 |
Source: Survey Data
2.14 Bush Control
Bush control was a major challenge facing farmers. On all farms surveyed casual labour was the major form of labour used. The method used in bush control on all farms was manual uprooting using hoes and pangas. Depending on the level of shrub coverage, the cost of clearing 1 hectare ranges from 100,000 to 300,000 shillings (USD1 = Ushs = 1,000).
On cleared farms bush control was given top priority constituting 40.8% of total farm expenditure while it constituted only 28.5% on bushy farms. The difference in expenditure on bush control between the two range categories can be attributed to variation farmers' incomes, level of education and awareness. As pointed out earlier farmers with alternative sources of income were more able to clear their farms.
2.15 Fencing
Two types of fences were used, namely live Euphorbia and barbed wire fences. Fencing as a management practice was done by all farmers and this could be a result of individualisation of land and hence the need to demarcate personal holdings. Most of the farms surveyed had only perimeter fencing while padlocking was uncommon. Average fencing costs were Shs. 400,560 and Shs. 341,440 per annum on cleared and bushy farms, respectively. Fencing constituted 22% on bushy farms compared to 13.5% on cleared farms. This findings can be explained by the fact that most of the bushy farms were just beginning to put up fences which involved high initial costs. On the other hand, all cleared farms already had fences hence only incurred repair and maintenance costs. Repairing of fences destroyed by bush fires in the dry seasons was a major problem reported by farmers.
2.16 Drugs and Veterinary Services
Veterinary services in this case refers to payments made to the Veterinary personnel for animal treatment. It does not include costs of drugs. The county has a resident veterinary doctor who is employed by the government as an extension worker. Despite being a government worker, farmers pay a consultancy fee for his services meant to facilitate his movements. On average, farmers spend Shs. 5,000 per visit. There are also para-vets trained by the Dry land Husbandry Project (a Regional pastoral development project operating in the area) to help in animal treatment on a sustainable basis. Veterinary consultancy was very low in both range categories and this was attributed to the fact that most pastoralists prefer treating their animals themselves. Most of the households surveyed had a syringe, a stock of drugs (especially antibiotics), and a spray pump. The veterinary doctor was only called for complicated cases like those requiring surgery. The most prevalent diseases reported were East Coast Fever and worm infections.
Results in Table 10 indicate that there was higher expenditure on drugs on cleared farms compared to bushy farms. Average annual expenditure on drugs on cleared farms was Shs. 677,000 compared to Shs. 477,520 on bushy farms. As a percentage of total expenditure, however, bushy farms spent 30.7% of farm income on drugs, while cleared farms spend only 22% on cattle drugs. This could be due to the fact that bushy farms had higher incidence of tick borne diseases usually associated with bushes. Bushes tend to create favourable conditions for the breeding of ticks.
2.17 Labour
Traditionally, pastoralists looked after their animals themselves. Children were the main source of labour. However, as already observed, with the advent of schools children are no longer available for labour. About 80% of the farmers relied on hired labour on farms. On average, each household had two labourers on the farm and the average monthly wage was Shs. 20,000 per worker. Labour constituted 21% and 17% farm expenditure on cleared and bushy farms, respectively. The labour referred to here was particularly that for herding, watering, milking, spraying, and transportation of milk. Cleared farms spent more on labour mostly because on average, they had large herd sizes requiring more manpower for milking, watering, and spraying.
2.18 Gross Margin Analysis
For purposes of comparative analysis, gross margins were calculated on per cow basis. This was done with the aim of standardizing the margins given that different farms had different herd and land sizes. Table 11 shows the gross margins of farms under the types of range conditions.
Results in Table 11 indicate that the average gross income per cow per annum for cleared farms was higher compared to that for bushy farms. Results further revealed that the average total costs per cow were also higher on cleared than on bushy farms. The average gross margin per cow per annum on cleared farms was Shs. 7,484, much higher than Shs. 2,805 on bushy farms. This was attributed tot he higher income of cleared farms resulting from higher animal production in terms of milk yield, body condition, and reproductive performance as already reported. Gross margins on bushy farms were further reduced by higher calf losses of Shs. 1,250 per cow compared to only Shs. 750 on cleared farms. Other losses that could have been responsible for lower gross margins on bushy farms, but were not included in Table 11, were those resulting from low calving rates, delayed puberty in heifers and longer calving intervals in cows grazing on the farms.
Table 11: Average Annual Gross Margin Per Cow of Farms Under Two
Types of Range Condition in Kazo County in 1998 (Ushs)
Item |
Cleared Farms |
Bushy Farms |
Income |
||
Milk and Cattle sales |
45,393 |
23,351 |
Total Gross Income |
45,393 |
23,351 |
Variable Costs |
||
Shrub Control |
15,196 |
5,545 |
Cattle Drugs |
8,463 |
5,969 |
Fencing & Fence Repairs |
5,007 |
4,268 |
Veterinary Consultancy |
729 |
348 |
Farm Labour |
7,764 |
3,921 |
Calf bosses* |
750 |
1,125 |
Total Variable Costs |
37,909 |
20,546 |
Gross Margins |
7,484 |
2,805 |
TR/TVC Ratio |
1.2 |
1.1 |
Source: Mugasi, 1999.
* Calf losses were estimated using the mortality rates of 7.2% and 15%for cleared and bushy farms, respectively. Each calf was estimated to cost 30,000 Shs.
However, gross margins per se may not reflect the real economic performance of the farms under the two types of range condition. It was important to consider Total Revenue (TR) in relation to Total Variable Cost (TVC) in order to establish financial efficiency of the farms under the two types of range condition. Financial efficiency was estimated using the TR/TVC ratio. The ratio shows the returns (revenue) per unit variable cost of production. The TR/TVC ratio was 1.2 on cleared farms compared to 1.1 on bushy farms. Though the gross margin per cow on cleared farms was much higher than on bushy farms, the TR/TVC ratio did not differ much. The ratio of 1.1 for bushy farms was fair enough given the low level of farm improvement, while a ratio of 1.2 for cleared farms needs to be improved given the high input in farm improvement. A ratio of about 1.5 would be desirable for cleared farms if the farmers are to improve their farms sustainably.
The closeness of the ratios on the two types of farms could be attributed to several factors no ratio and margin cannot be compared. The cost of labour for clearing the bushes was very high. This was mainly because of the nature of the vegetation in the area which consists of thick and thorny bushes dominated by Acacia spp. Due to the demographic set up of the area, there is severe labour shortage and As a result labourers come from distant areas and are expensive to hire. This, coupled with the fact that the bushes take only 1-2 years to regenerate, makes the cost of shrub control very high. Costs of other farm inputs, especially cattle drugs were also high because there are no competent local drug dealers and drugs have to be bought from Mbarara or Kampala, which are very far (110 km and 270 km, respectively.
Animal productivity was low due to poor condition of the pasture and animal breed. The local breed popularly known as the Long-horn Ankole cow is genetically a low milk producer, but very resilient in difficult range conditions. The improvement done on pasture minimal increase in animal production, particularly in terms of milk yield. The average milk per cow per day on cleared farms of 3.8 vis-à-vis to 2.4 litres on bushy farms, was lower than the potential of 8 litres for local cows. Bos indicus cows partition most of the nutrients as fats under the hump and in the dewlap while few are left for milk formation (Kisamba-Mugerwa, 1992) as a survival strategy.
Furthermore, mere clearing of shrubs did not considerably improve the quality of the pastures. Even after bush clearing, the dominant pasture species consisted of over 90% of grasses, mainly Brachaiaria nuzinziensis and Hyparrhenia rufa while the legume component was less than 10%. This was further evidenced by the low level of CP and high level of NDF of pasture on the two types of farms. Removal of shrubs followed by over sowing with legumes would probably improve the nutritive of the value and hence animal production.
Milk and cattle prices were also very low. More than 80% of the respondents interviewed complained of very poor prices. A litre of milk goes for Shs. 200 while in Kampala it is at Shs. 800 per litre. A cow of approximately 350 kg goes for Shs. 200,000, yet the average price of a kilo of beef in Kampala is around Shs. 2,000 giving about Shs. 700,000 per cow. This sharp difference in farm gate prices and prices on the market is essentially a result of poor marketing systems. Farmers have no ability to market their product themselves, mainly because the nature of the products requires high inputs for the purchase of freezers to transport milk and beef. As a result, farmers rely on traders who act as middlemen between them and the consumers. More of the marketing margins, therefore, go to the traders. Farmers have no control over prices of their products, and this could be because of the perishability of the products, and also because there are many producers hence perfect competition, which keeps product prices low. Furthermore, the remoteness of the area and the poor roads make it less accessible to traders, such that the few who go there dictate prices. The situation was made worse by closure of all cattle markets by Government in a bid to control cattle diseases.
In general, it was revealed that cleared farms had higher incomes and gross margins than bushy farms. However, due to higher farm improvement costs the financial efficiency of cleared farms was 1.2 almost equivalent to 1.1 of bushy farms. As Aneja (1993) observed, in many counties farm economics of agricultural enterprise is not consistently applied. More often, output or gross margins are considered as profits without respect to all inputs. This is the reason why farmers remain in business even if they are not making profits. The pastoral economy which is just undergoing gradual transformation from the traditional barter system into a monetary economy has had little to do with profit making. Even the farmers currently trying to improve their farms by clearing bushes are not profit driven but rather are output minded. Realisation of profit making and production efficiency as key elements in farm management would go a long way to improve the pastoral economy.
3. CONCLUSION
Basing on the objectives and the findings of the study, several conclusions were drawn. The traditional pastoral economy was gradually transforming to an agro-pastoral one. This transformation was accompanied by increasing education especially among the children, land acquisition, settling into relatively permanent homes, and cultivation of crops. Results also indicated that shrub encroachment on grazing lands led to reduction in the quantity and quality of available pasture, while clearing more than doubled dry matter herbage yield and this affected animal production. Animal production was lowered in terms of milk yield, body condition and reproductive performance.
Analysis of profitability indicated that cleared farms had better gross margins than bushy farms. However, the financial efficiency (measured using TR/TVC ratio) of the cleared farms (1.2) was low and only slightly higher than that of bushy farms (1.1). This was attributed to high variable costs resulting from high costs of shrub control. Shrub encroachment on pastoral rangelands can, therefore, be said to have caused economic loss through reduced levels of animal productivity, increased mortality rates, increased farm variable costs, and reduced gross margins.
4. RECOMMENDATIONS
There is need for more research on determining the real magnitude of environmental and economic losses caused by bush encroachment and the possible implications on the livestock sector and the national economy. The following should be addressed in tackling the bush problem: (i) Identifying shrub control methods that are economically viable and environmentally sound; (ii) Increasing the quality and quantity of pasture; (iii) Increasing animal production; (iv) Identifying alternative sources of income; and (v) Improving the marketing system of farm products.
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