Babiker Abbas (Prof.)*
1. Introduction
The Camel Research Project was embarked upon in 1983 by a group of researchers from the Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Khartoum. Initial and back-bone funding was secured by the then National Council for Research (Khartoum) with a token support from the Faculty of Veterinary Sciences. Several researchers carried out investigations on various aspects including anatomy, physiology, parasitology, microbiology and reproduction (Anon, 1988).
Ecologic studies on the camels' habitat and rearing conditions were begun in 1984-85 and were triggered by the severe drought which hit all of the camel range. The main question raised during that period was: what were pastoralists, specially camelmen, doing to cope with the drought? These studies were commenced in Butana and the Fringes of the Nubian Desert (Abbas and Musa, 1986) and were later extended to the Red Sea and Gash regions (Abbas and Tilley, 1987; Abbas, 1987; Abbas, et. al., 1992). In this paper, a synopsis of the findings will be presented. The emphasis here will be on the lessons learned from several years of encounters with pastoralists and the pastoralists' advocacy in relation to a better future. Since camels were considered as the index animal for studying pastoralism in the arid and semi-arid zones of the Sudan, most of the information will be on camel ecology and camelmen views of life in this zone. It will be clear, however, that most, if not all, camel keepers also raise variable numbers of other livestock and the discussion of the welfare of camels and camel keepers will necessarily include the study of other livestock in the region.
2. Herding Strategies in the Butana
A survey was conducted in 1987 which covered the whole of the Butana area in addition to the Gash basin and Nile Province. A total of 822 herders were interviewed in the presence of their herds of camels. The survey was based on computerized questionnaire formats which were based on a model previously tested in Niger and Saudi-Arabia ((IEMVT, Maisons - Alfort, France). Multivariate statistics were used to group the 17,650 camels included in the 822 herds into clusters or herding strategy categories on the basis of herd size, feeding strategy, owner's occupation, farming intensity, camel uses and marketing. Four distinct herding strategies were revealed (Abbas, et. al., 1992).
Type 1:
These are herds belonging to a single owner keeping a small number of camels (mean=12 camels) and depend mainly on trees and bushes in the riverine areas of Gash, Atbara River and the Nile, rarely grazing further into the deserts during the rainy season. They depend also on crop residues from cultivation in the schemes of gerfs (river-banks) in addition to supplements of dura. A high percentage of males is kept and is devoted for labour. Most of the owners are seasonal farm employees in the irrigated schemes or towns in the area. The herds in this group invariably include a number of small ruminants.
Type 2:
These are herds usually belonging to several owners who, as a group, hire between one and four keepers and rarely raise other animals. The herds move over large areas extending throughout Eastern and Northeastern Sudan but range predominantly in Eastern Butana during the rainy season. The mean number of camels in these herds was 84 and the range was 37 to 156. The representative tribes are the Bawadra and Rashaida with a few Kawahla, Massalamyia and a smaller group of Lahawine. The predominant occupations of owners are agriculture and commerce, specially border trade (Rashaida) (Maillard, 1992).
Type 3:
These are herds belonging to a single agropastoralist who keeps camels in addition to cattle and small ruminants. During the rainy season, the camels and other stock are always taken to Butana, where a paid keeper is employed. During the dry season camels are fed on crop residues from irrigated schemes, namely New Halfa and Rahad schemes. The owner is a sedentary farmer for most of the year. Herd size range between 9 and 65 camels with a mean of 39 camels. Tribes practising this herding strategy are mainly the Shukryia (86 per cent), the Kawahla, Lahawine, Arakiyeen and Masalamyia.
Type 4:
These are herds belonging to a single owner who is a true transhumant pastoralist. They graze only on natural pasture and rarely purchase scheme residues in the Gedaref area for supplementing the dry-season range. The herd size is highly variable (20 to 200 with a mean of 62 camels). Owners always raise small numbers of sheep and goats. Representative tribes are Kawahla, Rashaida, Shukryia, Lahawine, Arakiyeen and a few of the Hedendowa. The herds utilize the Butana, Gedaref and Atbara rivers as homelands while Rashaidis move very extensively and also range into the Gash and Red Seas hills.
3. Herd Nutrition and Management
Camels are mainly browsing animals and utilize browse for most of the year; hence the ideal camel range should always include trees, however sparse their abundance might be. During the rainy season, there is no problem with food for camels. However, as soon as the dry season sets in and wind changes its direction from southern (southwest) to northern, camelmen begin a very uncomfortable season. The quality of life during the dry season is always harsh, but the relativeness of this difficulty depends on the previous rainy season. If that season was good, the following dry season could be spent with relative ease as there was usually plenty of range all over the region. If the previous rainy season was poor or below average, then the dry season was a horrifying and gloomy one, with many decisions of difficult choices to make. These would include:
a) Sale of some animals to buy fodder (as well as an extra amount of grains).
b) Partition the herd into two or more bodies, each of which expected to range in a different area.
c) Migration to a different, often remote habitat (eg. schemes, forests, Red Sea hills etc...).
The strategies adopted by pastoralists to cope with extreme drought conditions were studied in the Summer of 1984, the year that marked the peak of the most recent Sahelian drought (Abbas and Musa, 1986). The following responses were recorded. Small herd (20 animals) were taken to the riverine areas in the Nile, Atbara or Gash vicinity where their owners worked as share croppers or labourers and fed their animals from trees and crop residues. Large herds (50 animals) were taken well out of the study area into the Rahad and Dinder forests, while medium-sized herds roamed the dry desert, foraging in the stream beds and old pastures in expectation of a better rainy season. This group lost most of their animals, specially breeding females and old males.
4. Continuous Survey of Camel Health and Productivity (1990-1994)
The results of former surveys were utilized to design a continuous survey of camel herd productivity and health problems actually obtained in the field. A total of 1036 camels belonging to 20 different herds and representing the major herding types as well as ethnic groups in the area were visited monthly for 4 years. During each visit ear-tagged animals (20-30 per herd) were individually examined and their body measurements taken. New calvings in the herd were recorded as well as mortalities (Agab, 1992; Le Horgne and Abbas, 1992). Data were computerized and analyzed on yearly basis (PIKBEU Computer system, CIRAD, EMVT). It was thus possible to perform reliable epidemiological and reproductive studies on a large number of camels over a rather long period (Tables 1 and 2). Data on body weight gain in relation to rainfall and range condition is still pending.
The first year of study (1990) was characterized by very poor rainfall (76 mm in Kassala and 372 mm in Gedaref) compared to an annual average of 218 mm for Kassala and 581 mm in Gedaref. Thus, an elevated mortality rate was the first consequence (Table 1). It was also confirmed from the analysis that pastoralists who ranged seasonally into the schemes and used crop residues maintained their herds in better condition. Their herds also attained an earlier sexual maturity, allowing in economic terms more intensive use of the herd. Thus, the sustainability of camel pastoralism in Butana was greatly helped by the availability of huge crop residues and agro-industrial by-products. However, during years of low rainfall Butana must face significant overstocking and range deterioration. It was also notable that the continuous trend of erratic rainfall and the growing use of crop by-products led to a gradual transfer of ownership from traditional pastoralists to rich farmers whose crop cultivation encroached on traditional pastures (Abbas, et. al, 1992; Abbas, Le Horgne and Saint-Mortin, 1992).
5. Outcomes of the Research Project
As a result of several years of work with pastoralists in the study area, experience was gained in many aspects of camel husbandry. However, the secondary outcomes of the project are also noteworthy. First of all, solid and reliable contact was established with numerous pastoralists from all tribes in an area extending from south of Gedaref to the Tokar Delta on the Red Sea Coast. As a result, researchers find excellent cooperation throughout the year whenever they undertake field visits. A field station was established in Showak town, on the cross-road of the main eastern migratory route. The station is equipped with basic laboratory facilities and a rest-house. Since its establishment in 1990-1991 it has become the focal center of diverse activities for researchers from different parts of the world as well as Sudanese researchers (Agab, et. al., 1994 a,b).
Post-graduate studies received the greater part of the projects agenda. Three French graduates and seven Sudanese M.Sc and Ph.D students have used the station in addition to 3 international missions. This station promises to be an international forum for research and development work on pastoralism.
Extension was the back-bone of our interest and our means of coverage of this large and diverse base of beneficiaries. Contact was actively established with herd owners and traditional healers as well as other agencies with similar interests operating in the region (ADS, UNDP, OXFAM, FINNIDA, etc..).
6. Conclusions and Recommendations
Camel husbandry is the main source of living for pastoralists in the semi-arid zone in Eastern Sudan. It is a viable activity and is witnessing transformation mandated by ecological and demographic factors. There is need for research and development activity along several lines, notably the following:
a) Means of survival in the face of drought recurrence: the potential for establishing summer refuges in areas of good potential. This should increase the fodder security of pastoralist herds, specially camels (and sheep) in the deserts of Sudan; fodder banks; range cropping.
b) Incorporation of pastoralists in agricultural development: allocation of land specially for animal farming (mixed-farming) in schemes established in traditional pastoral regions, the potential for establishing communal ranching or, as well as the allocation of adequate acreage for interested pastoralists for establishing individual ranches.
c) Research into ethnoverterinary knowledge to bridge the gap between inhabitants views and concepts on disease aetiology and to tap the local arsenal of medicines from plants (as well as surgical procedures) practised locally.
d) Research into the performance of camels under improved husbandry conditions and the use of breeding technology similar to that practised in the bovine industry.
e) Research into the role of pastoralist women in rural development, their contribution to family income, indigenous knowledge, specially cultural and social stability.
References
Anonymous. 1988. Proceeding of the International Symposium on Animal Resources Development in the Sudan, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Khartoum.
Abbas, B. and Musa B. E. 1986. Rapid Survey of Camel Pastoralism in the Northern Butana with Emphasis on Female Reproductive Performance. ILCA Group Document No. 12. Addis Ababa.
Abbas, B. and Tilley, P. 1987. Pastoralist Management for Protecting Ecological Balance in Halaib District. Nomadic People.
Abbas, B. 1987. Report on Livestock Ecology in Halaib District, Red Sea Province. Euro-Action ACORD, Khartoum.
Abbas, B. Chabeuf, N. et. al. 1992. Camel Pastoralism in North-Eastern Sudan. An Interdisciplinary Study. Nomadic Peoples.
Abbas, B., Le Horgne, J. M. and Saint martin, G. 1992. Association of Short-Survey with Long-term Survey in the Study of Camel Productivity in the Butana. Symposium on Alternative Methods in Livestock Development in the Mediterranean Region, Seragosa, Spain 12-15, September 1992.
Abbas, Agab, et. al. 1994. First Isolation of Brucella Abortus Biovar 3 from Camels in the Sudan. Revue Elve. Med. Vet. Pays Trop. 47: 361-363.
Agab, et. al. 1994. An Outbreak of Contagious Ecthyma in Camel Calves in Butana Region. Trop. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 26: 253-254.
Agab, H.M. 1992. The Basic Epidemiology of Camel Diseases in the Butana. M.V.Sc. Thesis. Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Khartoum.
Maillard, A. 1992. Enquete Zootechnique sur les systems d'elevage du dromadaire an Butana (Soudan) DVM Thesis Maisons - Alfort, 122 pp.
Le Horgne J. M. and Abba, B. 1992. Camel Project of Butana, Sudan. Report on Activities from December 1990 to April 1992. Maisons-Alfort (France) and Khartoum.
Annex 1
Table 1: Performance of the Herd (from inquiry data Saint-Martin et. al., 1990 Maillard, 1992)
Reproduction Age at first birth 6.5 years (n=8,847)
Interval between births 2.3 years (n=2,307)
Annual calving rate 35% (n=6,426)
Mortality 0-1 year annual rate 12% (n=4,765)
1 year annual rate 4% (n=2,910)
Offtake overall annual rate 11% (n=5,055)
Table 2: Performance Obtained in 17 Months of ContinuousSurvey (Oct. '90-March '92) (from Le Horgne and Abbas, 1992)
Reproduction Calving rate 32% (n=320)
Mortality 0-1 year rate 51% (n=84)
Offtake Overall rate 7% (n=384)
